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Productive Farming 



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KARY CADMUS DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell Univ.) 

PROFESSOR OP AGRONOMY AND PRINCIPAL OP THE SHORT COURSES, NEW JERSET 
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS) ; INSTRUCTOR IN AGRICULTURE, UNI- 
VERSITY OP VIRGINIA SUMiMER SCHOOL; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF 
HORTICULTURE, WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY; PRINCIPAL DUNN 
COUNTY (wis.) SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE; DEAN STATE 
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, CANTON, N. Y. ; 
CONDUCTOR MANY SUMMER TRAIN- 
ING SCHOOLS; INSTRUCTOR IN 
FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 



SECOND EDITION 




PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT, 19 1 1 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT, 191 2 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 

THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA, U.S.A. 



{CI.A327174 



PREFACE 

This book is intended to suit the needs of rural schools 
of all kinds, and graded village and city schools chiefly below 
high-school rank. It is believed that many high-schools 
wanting a less advanced course in agriculture than is offered 
in more difficult books will find this text helpful. It is 
hoped that farmers and others pursuing a short course, a 
reading-circle course, a correspondence course, or a home- 
reading course will find this volume of value. Such persons 
should read the exercises but probably omit the trial of some 
of them. 

In the preparation of this book the writer has been aided 
very materially by a number of people. The ever-present 
memory of the boys and girls with whom the writer has 
associated as a schoolmate or as teacher in the rural schools 
and graded schools has been an inspiration and help in pre- 
paring every lesson to be studied by other such boys and 
girls. The many teachers of both rural and graded schools 
who have criticized the lessons as they have been presented 
by the writer have spurred him on to do his best in the mak- 
ing of this book. It is to such teachers and such boys and 
girls that this book should be dedicated, for they have been 
in the writer's mind every moment of the time. 

Special acknowledgment is due to a number of persons 
who have helped in the preparation of the whole book or of 
special chapters. Professor Dick J. Crosby, Specialist in 
Agricultural Education of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, has read the first manuscript of the whole 
book and parts of the second draft. His suggestions and 
help have been so valuable that his name should go on the 
title page if he would allow it. He has read the proofs, and 



iv PREFACE 

through him many photographs have been supplied by the 
Department of Agriculture. Cuts made from those photo- 
graphs are marked ''A. E." in the list of illustrations. 

In like manner, Frederick C. Minkler, Professor of Ani- 
mal Husbandry of the New Jersey College of Agriculture, 
has read the manuscript and proofs of several chapters 
on Animal Production, Animal Breeding, Horses, Cattle, 
Sheep, and Swine. Other Professors of the same institution 
have read the manuscript and proofs of a number of other 
chapters: Dr. Jacob G. Lipman, Director of the Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, the five chapters on Soils and 
their Improvement; Professor Harry R. Lewis, Head of the 
Poultry and Dairy Departments, the chapters on Poultry 
Management and Cattle Products; Dr. John B. Smith, 
State Entomologist, the chapters on Insects and Bee-keeping; 
Professor Maurice A. Blake, Head of the Horticulture 
Department, the chapter on Fruit Production; Dr. Byron 
D. Halsted, Botanist and Plant Pathologist, the first chapter 
and the chapter on Plant Diseases and Spraying; Walter 
W. Shute, Instructor in Forage Crops, the chapters on Field 
Crops and on Alfalfa; Arthur J. Farley, of the Horticulture 
Department, the Sections on Spraying and the Tables of 
Insecticides and Fungicides; Dr. Myron T. Scudder, Head- 
master of the Rutgers Preparatory School and Professor 
of the Science of Teaching in Rutgers College, has read 
manuscripts and proofs of the Introduction and the chapter 
on The Business of Farming. Mrs. Kary C. Davis has read 
and criticized the whole manuscript and corrected the proofs. 
She has made nearly all of the pen-and-ink drawings in the 
book. To all of these and others, including many farmers 
and teachers whose names do not appear, the author is 
greatly indebted for material aid and encouragement. 

Photographs besides those already mentioned have been 
kindly furnished by the Agronomist and the Dairy Division 
of the United States Department of Agriculture. These 



PREFACE V 

are marked under illustrations : "An. I." for Animal 
Industry, and "PI. I." for Plant Industry. Credits are 
given with the name of the station to those furnished by 
State Experiment Stations: "Kans.," "W. Va./' "Wis.," 
"N. J.," "Minn.," "Maine," "Cornell." Professors Harry 
R. Lewis and Maurice A. Blake kindly supplied a nimiber 
of photographs; animal photographs were also given by F. 
Warren Sumner, of Elizabeth, N. J., the White Wyandotte 
Hen; Thos. Wyckoff, Orchard Lake, Mich., the Rambouillet 
Ram; Cornell Countryman, the Dorsets; Chas. Leet, Mantua, 
Ohio, Southdown Ewe; R. C. Parsons, Grand Ledge, Mich., 
Oxford Ram; A. T. Gamber, Wakeman, O., American Merino. 
Cuts have been loaned by the author and the J. B. Lippin- 
cott Co. from John B. Smith's "Insect Friends and Ene- 
mies," and "Economic Entomology." 

The author will be glad to receive suggestions and cor- 
rections from teachers and others regarding any mistakes 
in the book. 



CONTENTS 

Introduction. — The Teaching of Agriculture 

PART I.— PLANT PRODUCTION 

I. Structure and Physiology of Plants 8 

II. Plant Improvement — Good Seed 22 

III. Propagation of Plants Without Seeds 33 

IV. How Soils are Formed 42 

V. Kinds of Soils — Their Characteristics 50 

VI. Soil Moisture 58 

VII. Land Drainage 65 

VIII. Soil Improvement 69 

IX. Systems of Cropping 86 

X. Farm Crops 95 

XL Alfalfa 109 

XII. Cotton Production 115 

XIII. Corn 131 

XIV, Small Grains 148 

XV. Potatoes 154 

XVI. The Principles of Forestry 160 

XVII. Gardening 173 

XVIII. Fruit Production 188 

XIX. Insects 202 

XX. Diseases of Plants — Spraying 224 

PART II.— ANIMAL PRODUCTION 

XXI. Improvement of Animals 237 

XXIL Horses 240 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

XXIII. Cattle 257 

XXIV. Sheep 271 

XXV. Swine 278 

XXVI. Poultry Management 283 

XXVII. Bee-keeping 299 

XXVIII. Feeds and Feeding 305 

PART III.— ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
XXIX. Cattle Products 322 

PART IV.— FARM MANAGEMENT 
XXX. The Business of Farming 338 

PART v.— APPENDIX— REFERENCE TABLES 

I. Reference Books 346 

II. List of Experiment Stations 348 

III. Insecticides and Fungicides 350 

IV. Quantity of Seed per Acre and Legal Weights 354 

V. Sample Pedigree of Pure Bred Cattle 355 

VI. Rules 356 

VII. Fertilizer Formulas 357 

VIII. Average Digestibility of Feeds and Their Fertility. 360 

IX. Feeding Standards 361 

X. Average Composition of Farm Manures 362 

XL Distances Apart for Planting Fruit , 362 

XII. Usual Distances Apart for Planting Vegetables... 363 

Index 365 



Productive Farming 



INTRODUCTION 
THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 

The demand for the teaching of agriculture in the public 
schools is growing stronger all the time. In many States 
of the Union and several provinces of Canada the subject 
has been introduced into schools very generally. Not only 
has the subject been taken up in the high-schools, but also 
in special schools started for the avowed purpose of teaching 
agriculture, manual training, and domestic economy. 

This is in response to the very general demand for more 
practical instruction. The feeling exists that the schools 
have been doing work too remote from real life; and that 
where the work has touched the life at all, it has been the 
city side or the commercial side rather than the productive 
side and the industrial side of life. Such training tends to 
lead all, or nearly all, young people away from rather than 
toward the industrial and productive callings. The census 
reports indicate that this tendency has aided in building 
up the cities and actually decreasing the population in many 
of the rural districts. 

The interest in rural life should be kept up by the train- 
ing received in country schools, and in all schools. A proper 
conception of the opportunities afforded in the country 
should be in the minds of all young people — whether they 
live in cities or in the countr}-. The productive wealth of 
the nation is from the country, not from the city. This 
wealth should be used to improve rural life rather than city 

1 



2 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

life. All young people should learn of the opportunities for 
health, independence, happiness, and wealth afforded by 
the country. Those living in the country often fail to realize 
their blessings. They rush in dangerous numbers to the 
cities, until every legitimate city occupation is overcrowded. 
Hosts of them are left to seek livelihoods by devices and 
means that are at least not elevating. 

The comforts and conveniences enjoyed by a few in the 
cities are very alluring to the young ambitious mind. Why 
not show that things better than these are in the country — 
and that many of these same comforts may be enjoyed by 
rural communities. 

Suggestions to Teachers. — The teaching of agriculture 
is most easily done by taking up those subjects nearest at 
hand. Teach the lines of agriculture that will be most valu- 
able in your community. If in a gardening section the special 
garden crops will be most interesting; in a dairy section 
study dairy breeds, the testing of milk, the dairy products; 
in the corn belt the class will delight in the study of corn 
improvement, the testing of seed corn, and the judging of 
corn by score cards. 

There are certain chapters in this book which are funda- 
mental and cannot be omitted. For example. Chapter I is 
necessary to the proper understanding of other plant studies. 
However, there are certain other chapters which may be 
taken independently at a time of year which suits the sub- 
ject. The chapter on Forage Crops and perhaps others may 
well be used as reading lessons and then studied more in 
detail later. 

How to Begin. — Enter heartily into the new subject 
without hesitation. Teach the newest things in agriculture. 
It will be easier for you to teach these than to teach the 
topics more familiar to the class. This is particularly so 
if the pupils are from farms. The field is so broad no one 
can know it all. Teach the facts which you know best and 



THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 3 

which are newest to the class: the making of spray mix- 
tures; the prevention of certain plant diseases; the raising 
and use of special crops which should be grown, as, perhaps, 
alfalfa, or certain clovers; the green-soiling methods of 
feeding; use of catch crops and cover crops; the saving of 
soil moisture. The best United States Farmers' Bulletins will 
help you along these newer lines and will give you new points 
on the old themes. Why? It is because the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and fifty or more agricultural experiment 
stations are finding out new things in agriculture all the time. 

Farmers* Bulletins.— References to United States Farm- 
ers' Bulletins are given at the close of the chapters. A com- 
plete list of Farmers' Bulletins can be had by WTiting to, the 
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Besides those 
listed at the close of the chapters, there are others that will 
be helpful in schools. Write for them. They are free to 
schools. 

Make pasteboard holders for the Bulletins. Put labels 
on these so that a simple classification will be possible. Label 
them similar to the chapters in this book. 

How to Use the Bulletins. — Teachers will find the United 
States Farmers' Bulletins very useful. Let us illustrate. No. 
113, on "The Apple and how to Grow it," shows clearly how 
to graft fruit trees. It tells what to do and how to do it. 
The pictures are simple and plain. Most of the Bulletins 
are well illustrated and plainly written. Each of these 
Bulletins has a special use in teaching some definite subject. 
Have advanced pupils use the Bulletins as extra work, or 
as supplementary reading. 

Time Saved. — If the objection is raised that there is no 
room in the schedule — no time — for a new subject because 
there are already too many subjects to teach, answer by 
saying there is always room for a subject that will hold the 
pupils' interest. Such subjects, if practical, are the best in 
the school course. 



4 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Arranging the Schedule. — A "sliding schedule" may be 
made to admit agriculture without reducing the recitation 
time for other subjects, thus: First plan — On Mondays let 
agriculture take the place of the first morning recitation 
period; on Tuesdays, the second period; on Wednesdays, 
the third period, and so on through the week. Another plan 
would be to have agriculture three times a week, alternating 
with some three other subjects, — each of them being given 
four times a week. Another time-saving plan to use in the 
smaller rural schools is to combine several of the upper 
classes into one class when teaching a new subject like 
agriculture. 

Correlation. — It is, indeed, a very good plan to correlate 
the work in agriculture with other subjects in school. The 
other subjects will be made far more interesting to most of 
the pupils if agriculture is made the center of interest around 
which to group these other subjects. 

School English is made more interesting by having pupils 
read and write and speak on those themes which are close 
to human life. Language comes forth spontaneously when 
the pupils have something real to tell or to write about. New 
words in this book or in the Bulletins should be woven into 
the spelling and language work. 

A few arithmetical problems have been suggested in this 
book. These will serve to show that much of the arithmetic 
work of the school can be founded on agriculture or enriched 
by it. 

One of the best ways to study local geography is to study 
the soils of the neighborhood (Fig. 1). Trips may be taken 
by the class to near-by places where examples of erosion are 
showTi, or the action of ancient glaciers, or the cropping 
out of ledges of sedimentary rocks. Study soil-depths, soil- 
textures, and soil improvement. Take samples of soils and 
subsoils. The study of the ways in which soils are being 
formed all about the neighborhood is real geography. 



THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 5 

All this should be done not solely for the sake of agricul- 
ture, but for the sake of more interest in other subjects when 
the agricultural matter is introduced. There is as much or 
more cultural value in the teaching of a practical subject as 
in teaching any other subject in the school course. 





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Fig. 1. — Studying soils and potting plants. Graded school work in Virginia. 

Use the Exercises. — The practical exercises offered in this 
book are simple and can be performed by pupils themselves 
with a little guidance. Pupils will be willing to suppl}' the 
necessary articles in most cases. The exercises add much to 
the interest and also to the value of the work. The work 
should be directly with things, handling them, reasoning 
from them. Use also the exercises given in United States 
Farmers' Bulletins 408, 409, 423, 428. 

Suit the subject considered to the season so far as con- 
venient. Seed testing is a good exercise for early spring. 
School garden work will come later. Do not fail to provide 
window boxes. The pupils will do the work gladly, and in the 
spring season fill them with germinating seeds and growing 
plants. 

Teachers will find that agriculture ^vill add a new interest 
to the whole school work. Exhibits of the school garden pro- 



6 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ducts may be made at the school in the fall. Prizes may be 
offered for the best products grown by the pupils in the home 
gardens. Money to buy prizes may be raised by charging 
an admission fee when the exhibit is made. If the exhibit 
is small, supplement it with a suitable program. 

A Community Center.— The public affairs of the commu- 
nity should center about the school much of the time during 
the school year. 

The teacher may appoint committees to arrange the 
details of many events to be held at the school or at other 
near-by places in the name of the school. Hold corn exhibits 
in the fall or early winter and let students and others enter 
into corn-judging contests. Apple shows and vegetable 
shows may be held at separate times or in connection with 
the corn show. Poultry shows and dairyTproduct shows may 
be possible in some places. 

Premium lists should be issued to the pupils to take home, 
or they may be published in local papers. Award cards may 
be issued in lieu of premiums ; but the merchants or neighbors 
may be called upon to contribute suitable articles to be used 
as prizes. Read Circular 99, U. S. Office of Experiment 
Stations, on "Farmers' Institutes for Young People." 

Boys' and Girls' Clubs. — The school should be the center 
for the organization of boys' corn clubs, or alfalfa clubs, or 
experimental clubs. Girls' clubs may be organized. They 
may follow nature study, or home gardening, or sewing, or 
basketry. Let the work of all these clubs be shown at the 
school on stated occasions. Read Farmers' Bulletin 385. 

Special school exercises of an appropriate nature should 
be given on arbor day, bird day, corn day, alfalfa day, and 
other special days. Always have the patrons of the school 
present on these occasions. Make the school building the 
attractive center for the people of the community. The 
newer lines of education will connect with the life of the com- 
munity at every point. 



THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 7 

Let school holidays and perhaps other days be filled with 
historical or agricultural or other pageants suitable to the 
season; have appropriate contests, school games, and good 
sports. Let there be recreational diversion for old and 
young. Appoint committees to cooperate in preparing for 
these occasions. 



PART I. 
PLANT PRODUCTION 



CHAPTER I. 
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. 

The plants produced in field and garden form the food 
for man and nourishment for his live stock. Parts of plants 
are useful in the arts, as their oils for paint, their fibers for 
clothing, and their wood for buildings and fuel. 

The parts of farm plants are broadly considered to be 
made up of (1) root, (2) stem, (3) leaf, (4) flower, and (5) 
seed. 

Roots of plants are for three purposes: to hold the plant 
in place or prevent its blo^ving away; to take nourishment 
and moisture from the soil; and to serve as storage places 
for plant food. 

In growing into the soil the tip of the root forces its way 
among the soil particles. For this reason there is a root cap 
or covering over the tip to prevent injury. The growth 
takes place a Httle back of the tip cap, or covering, at the 
end of the fine roots. 

Root=hairs are formed on the fibrous roots a little distance 
from the tips. These are of fine growth, giving a plush or 
velvety surface to the root. The surface of all these fine 
hairs is very thin and is much greater in area than the sur- 
face of the roots. This allows moisture from the soil to pass 
through into the plant more easily. 

Exercise. — To Show Root-hairs. — Plant a few kernels 
of corn in moist sand or soil in a bottle with wide mouth 

8 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 



Wrap some black or dark paper around the body of the bottle 
to exclude the light. Roots seek darkness. Keep the soil 
moist and in a warm room for a week or so. The growth of 
the young roots will then have reached the inside surface 
of the glass. Notice their very fine, plush-like appearance 
(Figs. 2a and b). Notice also which grow in length faster 
during the first two weeks, the roots or the tops of the young 
corn plants. 





Fig. 2a. — <I!orn grown in a bottle of soil. The darlc paper around it excludes 
the light, so the roots may be studied by removing the paper. 

Fig. 26.— Corn grown as in Fig. 2a, showing fibrous roots and root-hairs for 
absorbing moisture. 

Exercise. — Root-hairs on Seedlings. — Sprout some seeds 
of squash or beans in folds of moist blotters between two 
plates until the roots are two or three inches long. Examine 
for root-hairs on these by holding them against a dark cloth 
or paper. 

Stems of plants have several uses: They support the 
leaves and hold them up to the air and light. They serve as 
storehouses for the saving of starch, sugar, and other forms 
of nourishment for the future use of the plant. They are 
the channels of circulation of plant sap and the transfer 
of plant food from root to leaf and from leaf to root. 



10 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Exercise. — Sap Channels in Stems. — Put the stems of 
fresh plants into water colored with red ink. After a few 
hours cut off the stems and notice the stained places on the 
cut surface. Use for this exercise some woody stems, as 
willow, and others like celery or rhubarb, golden-rod, corn, 
tall grass, or other convenient plants. 

The different ways in which the stems of various plants 
hold the leaves up to the light and air are interesting. Vines 
do this by climbing upon objects which they may find near 
them. Trees have rigid stems which hold the leaves high 
in the air. Those growing in dense forest clumps are taller 
and more slender than those growing in open places where 
there is plenty of light. This is also true of corn-stalks planted 
close or far apart. 

The leaves of the plant have much work to do. They 
secure substances from the air, chiefly carbon dioxide, and 
change it into forms of food that will build up the plant or 
produce growth. The leaves also permit the escape of water 
from the plant into the air. Water is taken up by the roots, 
not by the leaves. There are large amounts of water given 
off by the leaves during the growth of the plants. 

Exercise. — Plants Absorb Moisture. — Get the material 
shown in Fig. 3a. After the corn or other plant is a few 
inches high, start the experiment. Have the water line 
marked on the lard pails one inch above the bottom of the 
pots. Each day fill the water up to the mark, and record 
the amount required for each pail in two weeks. If the one 
with the growing plant requires the most, where has the 
extra water gone to ? 

Exercise. — Moisture from Leaves. — Arrange an exper- 
iment as shown in Fig. 36. The moisture which escapes 
from the leaves will partly be condensed on the inside of the 
inverted glass, and may be seen in fine mist or drops. 

Leaf Structure. — Fig. 4 shows the cut edge of a leaf. 
Between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf there are 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 11 

many soft plant cells. These cells have very thin walls 
and are bathed by air. The air cavities are shown at A in 
the figure. All the cells shown with dark grains in the figure 
contain the green coloring matter of the leaf. This is called 
chlorophyl (klo-ro-fil). The use of this will be spoken of later. 





Fig. 3a. — Growing plants absorb moisture from the soil. Two flower-pots 
K-ith equal amounts of the same kind of soil are set in lard pails having water up to 
the line shown. Corn is growing only in the left one. (Agricultural Education.) 

Fig. 36. — Evaporation of water from leaves. The condensed moisture shows 
in the upper part of the glass inverted over the growing plant. (Agricultural 
Education.) 

Exercise. — Skin of Leaf. — Break a leaf partly in two 
in such a manner as to peel the surface away from the inner 
cells. This surface layer of cells is clear and contains no 
chlorophyl, as shown in Fig. 4, The outer layer of cells is 
so thin and clear that sunlight may pass through and reach 
the green colls of the inner part of the leaf. 

Air Openings. — Air may enter the leaf through small 
openings, chiefly on the under side. One of these openings 
is marked S in Fig. 4. These are called stojnates, the word 
meaning "mouths." There are great numbers of the sto- 
mates on the under surface of leaves. Thej' may be opened 
or closed according to the condition of the weather. This 
is done by the action of a pair of cells at the opening called 



12 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



guard-cells. The stomates are partly closed in dry weather. 
This keeps moisture from passing too freely out of the leaves 
into the air. 

Plants Get Food from Air. — Growing plants take much 
of the substance which produces growth directly from the 
air. They use the carbon dioxide from the air which is given 
off to the air by the breathing of animals and by the burning 
and decay of wood. This plant-food from the air furnishes 
about ninety-five per cent of the dry weight of plants. It 
is through the leaves that this form of food is taken. The 



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Fig. 4. — Cross section of leaf. The inner cells contain chlorophyl; tho.se near 
the under side are loose to allow the free passage of air (A). Many breathing pores 
are in the under skin. One shows at S. 



breathing pores on the surface of green leaves allow the air 
to come in contact with the soft cells of the inner tissue 
(Fig. 4).^ 

Sunlight aids the plant in changing the carbon dioxide 
into starch or other organic food. Only those plants which 
contain the green coloring matter, chlorophyl, are able to 
use the carbon dioxide from the air and change it in this 
way. Mushrooms grow in the dark, and have no chlorophyl. 
Their food is not taken from the air nor from the real soil, 
but from the partly decomposed matter in the soil. 

Exercise. — Need of Sunlight. — Place a board, box, or 
other object over the green grass of a lawn and let it remain 
for several days. Notice that the color is soon gone from 
the leaves. In time the grass would be killed. Celery is 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 13 

hlanched by excluding the light from the stems. Why does 
a covering of straw or other thick mulch in a strawberry 
patch prevent the growth of weeds? What harm comes from 
the accidental covering with soil of young corn plants by 
the cultivator? 

Exercise. — Leaves Seek Light. — Set some growing plants 
in the window for a few hours and notice that the leaves 
turn toward the light. Turn the plants around and see how 
long it takes for the leaves to face the light again. 

Exercise. — To Show Presence of Starch. — Crack a few 
kernels of wheat or corn and treat them with a few drops 
of iodine. The change of color which follows is a proof of 
the presence of starch. This was stored in the seed for its 
future use. Starch turns blue when treated with iodine. 
The same trial made with potato, corn-pith, pith of tree 
twigs, and many seeds, will show^ the presence of starch. 

Balance in Nature. — Animals use large quantities of 
oxygen from the air and return carbon dioxide to the air. 
Plants make use of the waste which animals breathe off. 
The plants break up this gas, retaining the carbon and giving 
off the oxygen. A small amount of oxygen is also used by 
plants. The carbon retained by the leaves and the water 
which the plants obtain from the soil are combined to form 
organic matter. This is chiefly starch at first, but it may 
be readily changed to sugar or other forms suitaljle for 
storage. In sugar-beets and sugar-cane the storage matter 
is largely sugar. 

Tissue for new growth of the plant may be formed either 
from stored plant-food or from newiy-formed plant-food that 
has not been taken to any storage place in the plant. 

Exercise. — Balance of Life in an Aquarium. — Make an 
aquarium in a large fruit-jar or other glass vessel, as shown 
i-n Fig. 5. Very clear sand is used in the bottom. The plants 
are started from pieces of water plants commonly growing 
in ponds or lakes. The animals may be water insects of 



14 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




several kinds — polliwogs, water snails, and small fish. Set 
the aquarium in a very light place. When the plants begin 
to grow, they will give off oxygen to the water. The animals 
will breathe the oxygen from the water. A little careful 
observation will tell whether there are 
too many animals in the aquarium or 
not. If the fishes come to the surface 
to breathe a great deal, some of them 
should be taken out. Snails and polli- 
wogs are scavengers and will eat the 
waste matter gathering on the inside of 
the glass and on the plants. Do not 
let the pupils feed the fishes too much. 
This will spoil the water for the fishes. 
How Plants Get Water. — The 
moisture from the soil is the only water 
taken in by farm crops. This enters 
through the thin covering of the root- 
hairs growing on the fibrous roots. 
The absorbing surface is very great and 
large quantities of liquid are taken 
up. It is estimated that several hun- 
dred tons of water or liquid food are taken up by a corn crop 
to produce one ton of dry fodder. 

Osmosis is the name of the process by which liquid food 
is taken into the plant through the roots. A little of the acid 
or other cell sap in the roots passes into the soil at the same 
time. There is a sort of trading of two liquids through the 
surface membrane of the root-hairs. A very little of the 
denser liquid of the plant is sent out in exchange for a large 
quantity of soil water. 

Osmosis may be defined as the exchange of two different 
liquids through a thin membrane which separates them. 
Two liquids separated by a membrane will pass through it 
and mingle with each other. Soil water will thus reach and 



Fig. 5. — A sunlight 
aquarium. The plants fur- 
nish oyxgen and the ani- 
mals use it. The animals 
produce carbon dioxide 
and the plants use it. 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 15 



mingle with the contents of root-hairs. The thin liquid 
passes more rapidly. Osmosis may be well illustrated in a 
number of ways. 

Exercise. — Osmosis with Potato. — Take a wilted potato 
tuber and cut it into slices about one-fourth inch thick. 
Place a few slices in water. They become more rigid in an 
hour or so because of the water taken into the cells. Place 
a few slices in strong salt water. They become more 
flaccid or wilted because of the water drawn from them into 
the brine. The potato sap is naturally denser than water, 
but not so dense as the salt water. 

Exercise. — Osmosis with an Egg. — In the small end of 
an egg make a hole a little larger than a pin head. Over 
this hole fasten a short piece of glass 
tubing. Melted paraffin or wax will 
fasten it well. At the large end of the 
egg chip away a bit of the shell. Place 
it with the large end down in the wide 
mouth of a bottle which is full of 
water (Fig. 6). After several hours 
liquid will be seen to rise in the tube, 
evidently caused by water making its 
way through the thin membrane lining 
the egg-shell. This membrane shows 
no pores even under the microscope. 

Plant=food from Soil. — If plants 
take about ninety-five per cent of their 
food from the air there is left only 
about five per cent to be obtained from 
the soil. The plant-food from soils 
must be in soluble form, and is taken 
in with the soil water. When plant-food is soluble it can 
pass through the membrane of the fine root-hairs growing 
on the roots of plants. It produces in the plant the part 
of the tissue which is called the ash or mineral matter. 




Fig. 6. — Osmosis w-ith 
an egg over a bottle of 
water. The egg liquid and 
the water exchange places 
through the membrane of 
the egg. Water moves the 
faster and .soon fills the 
shell to overflowing. 



16 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Problem. — One hundred pounds of cured corn fodder 
contain 58 pounds of dry matter, 2.9 pounds of which are 
from the soil and the remainder from the air. What per 
cent of the dry matter is from each source ? 

Exercise. — Mineral Matter in Plants. — Burn a piece of 
very dry wood on a stove shovel in the stove, to save all the 
ashes on the shovel. If the dry wood be weighed first and 
the ashes be weighed afterward the exact proportion can 
be determined. The ash represents nearly all of the mineral 
matter in the wood. This part comes from the soil and the 
remainder chiefly from the air. This exercise shows how 
small a part of the plant's food is from the soil; but this part 
is very necessary. Our farm crops could not live without 
the ash or mineral matter which they obtain from the soil. 

Other Needs of the Plant. — We have already seen that 
most i^lants need light to make use of the food which they 
get from the air. Light is not necessary for the germination 
of seeds in the soil. The leaves of the young plant soon seek 
the light by growing toward the surface of the soil. 

The need of moisture has also been considered. 

Other needs of the plants are a proper amount of Avarmth 
and a supply of air. 

Light, heat, moisture, and air are all needed by growing 
crops. 

Temperatures. — Certain degrees of warmth are necessary 
for the best growth of plants and the sprouting of seeds. 
Very few seeds will sprout if colder than 40 degrees F. or 
warmer than 115°. Wheat will not sprout below 41° and 
prefers a warmth of 60° or 70°. Corn needs more heat; even 
48° is too cold for it and soil as warm as 70° or even 90° suits 
it better. Seeds that sprout in cool soil may be planted in 
earliest spring time; while those which require more heat 
must be planted later. 

Air and Oxygen. — Not only must the leaves and stems 
of plants have free access to air, but the roots of our farm 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 17 

crops must be in soils supplied with oxygen. If there is too 
much standing water in a field the air is excluded from the 
soil and crops do not thrive. The leaves of plants turn 
yellowish and show an unhealthy condition if the soil is not 
supplied with air. This may be noticed in the wet parts of 
a cornfield. If the soil is well drained, the surplus water 
gets away and air is drawn into the soil. 

Exercise. — Need of Air for Germination. — Put a dozen 
or more beans or kernels of corn in a bottle nearly full of 
water. In another bottle place a dozen of the same kind, 
thoroughly wet but not submerged in water. Cover both 
bottles loosely to prevent loss of water. Put both in a 
warm place and watch results for a week or so. The water 
in the first bottle excludes the air from the seeds. If they 
do not sprout it will be for want of air. When crops are 
planted in low, wet places in fields the seeds refuse to grow 
for lack of air. 

Exercise. — Need of Air in Soil. — Two cans of soil may 
be planted alike with the beans or corn. Have one can 
watertight at the bottom, and the other with plenty of 
holes through the bottom for drainage. When the plants 
have grown a few inches high fill the undrained can with 
water to the top of the soil. Notice the effect on the plants 
in that can. Compare ^vith the others having air and moist- 
ure both in the soil. 

Purpose of Flowers. — The main aim of life for all plants 
is to produce seed. To do this a flower must be formed. 
The form and structure of flowers are quite variable, as seen 
when the strawberry is compared with the lady-slipper 
and the apple. 

A perfect flower has two different kinds of essential 
organs, the pistils and the stamens. The stamens bear 
pollen, which is carried to, or falls upon, the pistil. This 
fertilizes the pistil and enables it to produce the seed. The 
seed or seeds of most plants are borne in the lower part of 
2 



18 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



the pistil called the ovary, as shown in Fig. 8. The other 
parts of a perfect flower are shown in that figure. 

Imperfect Flowers. — The flowers of many plants are not 
perfect. Some of them bear the stamens only and others 
the pistils. In the cucumber, musk-melon, and others, the 
stamens and the pistils are in different flowers on the same 
plant. In any case where the flowers are not perfect, the 




Fig. 7. — Strawberry blossoms. Those on the left are of varieties each having 
both stamens and pistils. Those on the right have only pistils. Varieties wlii<"h 
have only pistils must be grown near perfect varieties so the pollen may be carried 
to them at the blossoming time. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



pollen must l^e carried by some means to the flowers having 
the pistils; otherwise seed could not be formed. 

How Pollen is Carried. — The pollen of corn and many 
grasses is very light and dry and is carried by the wind. Some 
of it falls upon the pistils and grows, thus helping to form 
seed. The pollen of most fruits and vegetables is rather 
sticky and heavy and is carried by insects. Bees and other 
insects visit the blossoms in search of nectar to make honey. 
As they go from flower to flower even among the perfect 
blossoms, much pollen is distributed where it is needed. 
These insects are attracted to flowers by the bright showy 
colors of the petals of the flower, and by their fragrance. 
Showy petals and fragrant blossoms are not found on corn, 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 19 



grains, and grasses, because their pollen is borne by the wind. 

Cross Pollination. — Plants are said to be cross pollinated 
when the pollen is taken from one to another by some means. 
Many of our fruit trees bear much more and better fruit 
when they are cross pollinated. A number of varieties of 
apples, pears, peaches, and plums will not bear fruit if grown 
by themselves. They produce abundant fruit when polli- 
nated by other varieties of the same class that blossom at 
the same time. For this reason it is of much benefit to have 
plenty of bees in the orchard at work gathering their supply 
of honey during the blossoming season. The owner of a 
large orchard should have a yard of beehives. The work of 
the bees gives him a larger crop of fruit as well as a crop 
of honey. 

Exercise. — Parts of a Flower. — The members of the 
class should examine a few large, 
simple flowers and learn to name 
the parts shown in Fig. 8. 
United States Farmers' Bulletin 
408 will be helpful in this exercise. 

Exercise. — Pollination of 
Corn. — Have students or others 
bring to school ears of corn on 
which some of the kernels failed 
to develop. This shows the result 
of poor pollination. Perhaps a 
hot wind injured the silks, or 
pistils, before the pollen was re- 
ceived. Other ears may be shown 
which have sugar-corn kernels 
mixed with field corn, or have 
white kernels among the yellow, 
was carried from other corn plants. Two different kinds 
of corn should not be planted close together if it is desirable 
to keep the varieties pure. 




Fia. S. — Diagram of cross sec- 
tion of a flower, p, pistil; o, ovary 
with young seed receiving the pol- 
len growth; st, stamens; po, pollen 
scattering from stamen to pistil; 
PE, petals; 6e, sepals. 



These prove that pollen 



20 PRODUCTIVE FAR]\nNG 

Purpose of Seeds. — A true seed bears within its coats 
a minute plant called the germ. Its purpose is to develop 
into a new plant like the parent plant. Some nourishment 
is stored in the seed for the use of the young plant when it 
begins to grow. This store of nourishment in the bean is 
in the two seed leaves or thickened halves of the bean. In 
the corn kernel a store of starchy matter is found about the 
germ. 

Exercise. — Study of Seeds. — Soak some large lima beans 
and some kernels of corn for a few days. Let each member 
of the class find the little plant inside the bean coats; and 
the long oval germ of the corn imbedded in the store of 
starchy matter. Other large seeds may be soaked and studied 
closely. 

Duration of Life. — With respect to their length of life 
most farm plants are divided into three groups: annuals, 
biennials, and perennials. 

Annual plants are illustrated by corn, oats, beans, and 
peas. They germinate, grow, blossom, bear seed, and die 
within one year. No part lives over to the next year but the 
seed. 

Biennials are not so numerous among farm crops. Exam- 
ples are beets, carrots, parsnips, onions, and Ibabbage. They 
germinate, grow, and store a large supply of nourishment 
the first year. The second year they use up this store of 
nourishment, send up a flower stalk, produce flowers and 
seed, and then die. Only the seed lives over. 

Perennials include many of the grasses, alfalfa, trees, 
shrubs, and many others. They germinate and grow for 
some time without bearing blossoms and seeds. When old 
enough they begin blossoming and bearing fruit. This may 
continue year after year for several or many years. The 
peach tree bears some fruit the second or third year and 
dies after ten or fifteen years. The apple tree does not bear 
so young but lives much longer. 



STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 21 

REVIEW. 

1. Name the five parts of a plant. 

2. What two purposes have roots ? 

3. What is the use of the root cap ? 

4. Describe the location and appearance of root hairs 

5. Give several purposes of plant stems. 

6. What are the uses of leaves ? 

7. Draw and describe the structure of the leaf, showing the air cav- 
ities and the stomates. 

S. What food do plants get from the air ? What do they make 
from this ? 

9. What plants use sunlight ? How does it help them ? 

10. Tell of the balance in nature in the production and use of 
carbon dioxide and of oxygen. 

11. Tell how the oxygen supply is produced and used in an aqua- 
rium in the window. 

12. How do field crops get their water ? 

13. What is osmosis ? 

14. Give one or two examples of osmosis. 

15. How much of the food of plants comes from the air, and how 
much from the soil ? 

16. From what source is the ash or mineral matter derived? The 
starch ? 

17. Mention four climatic needs of the growing crop. 

18. Tell of suitable temperatures for the sprouting of corn and of 
wheat. 

19. What is the effect of no air in the soil, for germinating seeds 
and for growing crops ? 

20. Tell of the purpose of flowers. 

21. Name the two essential organs of a perfect flower, and give the 
use of each. 

22. What are the two chief ways by which pollen is carried ? 

23. Give two ways in which flowers attract bees and other insects. 

24. What is cross pollination ? Of what benefit is it in orchards ? 

25. Why should fruit growers keep bees ? 

26. What is the purpose of the germ in a seed ? 

27. Where is the storage matter in the bean ? In the corn kernel ? 

28. Give the life cycle of an annual. 

29. Describe the work each year of the biennial plant. 

30. Define a perennial. Give examples. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 408, School Exer.- 
cises in Plant Production; 409, School Lessons on Corn; 1905 Yearbook, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, pages 257-274, The Use of Illustrative 
Material in Teaching Agriculture in Rural Schools. 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



CHAPTER II. 
PLANT IMPROVEMENT— GOOD SEED. 

One of the best ways to improve our crops on the farms 
or in the gardens is to select good seeds for planting. It is 
a law of nature that " like produces like." 

Seed Selection. — Careful selection year by year will 
gradually improve any crop. The seeds should be healthy 
in every respect, free from impurities, large and heavy for 
its kind, and taken from the best plants. We may save seeds 
from those plants in the garden that show the qualities 
which we want. The same care should be exercised in the 
selection of seed wheat, oats, rye, and other field crops. In 
the case of corn and potatoes it is possible to select seed in 
the field from the best individual plants or hills, but in the 
case of small grains this method would not be practicable. 
With these grains we should follow some good method of 
grading to secure good, large, plump kernels; such have the 
best characters (Fig. 9). 

Sifting and Fanning Grain. — Sieves are very useful for 
separating the poor seed from the good. Meshes of just the 
proper size are used to screen the large and let the small 
fall through the sieve. The practice of winnowing the grain, 
used in olden times, is now replaced by the use of fanning 
mills. Fanning devices are usually found in threshing ma- 
chines to separate the chaff, lighter seeds, and trash from the 
heavier grains. All seeds to be sown should be cleaned and 
re-cleaned until they are pure and of the best qualit3\ (See 
exercise with large and small radish seeds, page 28.) 

Wheat and other small grains have been less improved 
by selection than corn because the kernels are handled less, 
and being smaller less attention is given to their individual 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 23 

characters when being harvested. The smaller grains are 
now receiving the attention of a few experiment stations, 
and valuable improvements are being made. 

Choosing from the Best. — With garden plants such as 
squashes, melons and tomatoes we should not only choose 
good specimens from which to save seed, but we should select 
those specimens from plants that yield large crops of good 
fruits. This selection can be done more carefully by the 
grower himself than it can by any wholesale methods where 
large quantities are carelessly saved from large areas. When 




Fig. 9. — Good plump wheiit at the li.-ft; a pour (..\ pe of \v!n-:it at the right, with 
narrow shrivelled kernels. (Experiment Station, Kans.) 

a few desirable individual plants are found, they can be 
rapidly multiplied. 

The Ear=Row Method. — The best ear of corn from the 
best bearing stalk may be saved for seed and planted in a 
row by itself. This corn may produce many good stalks 
with ears as good or better than the one we began with. 
If the corn of each ear is grown in a separate row we can 
compare the yields of these rows and select the next seed 
accordingly. These best ears should be grown in a separate 
field where the wind cannot carry pollen to it from other 
cornfields. 

The HilI=Row Method. — Potatoes should be grown from 
those found on the best individual plants. If the potatoes 
from two plants or hills weigh about the same they may be 
planted in separate rows. The best row will next furnish 
the hills for seed-potatoes. 

Bud Selection. — Peaches, plums, apples, grapes, and 
some other fruits are propagated by the use of buds, grafts, 



24 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



cuttings, and divisions of the plants. The buds or other 
parts are taken from tlie best plants of the preferred varieties. 
Their seed, if used, would not come true to kind. 

The Weed Nuisance. — One of the greatest hindrances 
to good farming is the presence of weeds in the fields. Weed 
seed is in the soils, in the grain, grass seed, and nearly all 
farm seeds. (Figs. 10a and b.) There are thirty or more un- 
desirable weeds to be found in clover seed and alfalfa seed. 




Fig. 10a. — Hay-field filled in late summer with wild carrots or Queen 
Anne's lace. 

Fig. 106. — Hay-field "talien" by dandelion. 

The grass seed is too often full of bad weed seed. There 
is no place on the farm where weeds are a greater enemy 
to our success than in the grass fields. It is harder to get 
rid of them there than from the fields where we are doing 
some tilling. But most of the weeds found in the pastures 
and hay-fields have been sown there or near there by some 
farmer, at some time in the past. Some weed seeds are 
sown from fence rows by the wind. 

Examining for Impurities. — Weed seeds and other impu- 
rities can usually be seen with a common reading glass or 
pocket microscope. The proper thing to do is to examine 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 25 

seeds before buying them, and avoid spending money for 
weed seeds to sow on the farm. At least let us look at the 
seed before sowing it. (Fig. 11.) 

Exercise. — Looking for Weed Seed. — Let each pupil 
have a half teaspoonful of clover or other common farm 
seeds. Spread them on a sheet of white paper. Let the seed 
be examined without the aid of lenses first. The weeds that 
are known should be put to one corner of the paper which 
is labeled "known weeds." In another place put the un- 




FiG. 11. — Seeds mounted in holes in heavy pasteboard between two pieces of 
glass held ^-ith paper binding. A tripodlens used for seed study. (Agricultural 
Education.) 

knowTi weeds; and in another the dirt, grit, sticks, and other 
dead matter; in another the shriveled seed of the kind you 
have present. Single seeds may be moved by use of a moist 
pencil point or similar object. When the study is completed, 
count or estimate the lots of each kind to determine the per 
cent of each. 

Exercise. — Another Way of Looking at Seeds. — Moisten 
the first joint of the thumb of the left hand and dip it into 
the seed to be studied. One layer of seed will cover the 
moist surface. With a lens or reading glass in the right hand 
the seed may be carefully examined for impurities. (Figs. 
12a and b.) 



26 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Exercise. — Identifying Weed Seeds. — The figures in 
U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 260 and 382 will help to determine 
the names of the weed seeds not known by the pupils. Let 
students cut out the figures and paste them on a card for 
quick reference. If the school has a collection of weed seeds 
in small bottles (Fig. 14), they may now be used to help 
identify the unknown seeds. 

Exercise. — To Compare Good and Poor Lots of Grass 
Seeds. — Take a piece of clean window glass and wet it with 




Fig. 12a. 
Fig. 12&. 



-Teacher showing the clasa how to examine a seed sample. 
-Seeds on the thumb, magnified through a reading glass. 



water. Spread on it a thin layer of blue-grass or of red-top 
seeds. Hold the glass between you and the bright light. 
Notice how many of the glumes or husks are hollow. Com- 
pare in this way a good sample with a poor one. Note the 
difference in the amount of chaff. 

Seed Analysis. — The methods of studying seeds outlined 
in two preceding exercises may be called seed analysis. The 
sieves mentioned before may also' be used in analyzing a 
sample of seed as well as in aiding in the cleaning of large 
quantities. 

Seed Testing. — Another way to detect impurities in 
seeds is by sprouting a sample of the seed and then observ- 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 27 

ing the differences in character of growth; they may differ 
in the shape or number of seed leaves, or in manner of coming 
out of the seed coats. 

Another reason for seed testing is to determine the 
vitality or germinating power of the sample. 

There are several advantages of knowing the vitalit}^" 

1. It will save us buying poor seed if we test a sample 
before buying. 

2. If the test is low we will not use the seed at all, even 
if we own it. 

3. If it is as good as we can get we will plant enough more 
seed than usual to allow for the reduced vitality. 

4. Thus knowing how much to plant, will save us the 
time, labor, and expense of replanting a crop after the first 
planting shows a poor stand. 

5. The first planting being made wath good seed will give 
us a good even stand at the proper season, instead of too late. 

6. This means a better harvest and good return for labor 
expended in cultivation through the season. 

Methods of Testing Seeds. — When seeds are to be tested 
they must be given proper moisture, warmth, and air; these 
must not change much during the test. A warm living room 
is about right if the moisture is held close about the seeds. 

A common way is to take two lots of one hundred seeds 
each; these are planted in a shallow box of moist sand. 

Another good way to test seeds is to place them in pans 
or deep plates between wet blotters or layers of wet cloth 
(P^ig. 13). The plates are placed one above another as high 
as desired. A label is made for each lot of seeds by using 
pencil and paper, thus: 

Date — February 10. 

Number of seeds 100 

Kind Red clover 

Number sprouted 90 

Per cent of good seed 90 



28 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Folds of wet cloth may be made. A lot of seeds with its 
label is placed in each fold. This is carefully placed in a cov- 
ered pan in a warm place. If a hundred seeds are taken each 
time, the per cent of germination is more exactly expressed. 

Exercise. — To Test Seeds. — Have grains and garden seeds 
brought to school. Have them counted, labeled, and tested 
by each method described here. Winter and early spring 
are good times to make such trials with seeds. 

Exercise. — Size of Seeds. — From a large package of 
radish seeds, select 100 of the largest, and another 100 of 
the smallest. Make sprouting tests of these two lots, by 





Fig. 13. — A convenient home apparatus for testing seeds. The seeds are germi- 
nated between wet cloths or blotters. The plates help to hold the moisture. 
(Agricultural Education.) 

planting them in a shallow box of moist sand or soil. Keep 
them in separate rooms, and label them. Does the result 
show that gardeners should select large seeds? Could this 
be done with sieves? 

Buy the Best. — It seldom pays to buj^ cheap seeds. The 
age, size, weight, purity, and vitality should always be deter- 
mined before purchasing. 

Cheap seeds are sometimes mixed with better seeds if 
the two kinds look much alike. Old seeds which have nearly 
lost their life are sometimes made fresh looking by using 
fumes of sulphur. These are then mixed with good seeds 
and sold. Such mixtures are called adulterations. 

Immature seeds are those not fully ripened; such seed 
cannot sprout well. To sprout under ordinary field con- 
ditions, the seed must be fully matured. 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 29 

Storage of seed under proper conditions is quite impor- 
tant. Most seeds should be promptly dried when first taken; 
they are then kept free from moisture and from frost. They 
need to be kept away from mice and from insect pests such 
as weevils. 

Weeds have been briefly defined as "plants out of place." 
This is a satisfactory meaning of the term, for many plants 
that are grown for the uses of man are objectionable when 
found among other crops. Rosebushes sprouting in a corn- 
field are called weeds. Likewise corn in a rose garden is 
considered as a weed. Noxious weeds, however, are those 
plants which are verj^ frequently found in fields, or gardens, 
or other undesirable places. 

Classification. — Weeds may be grouped, according to 
the length of life, into annuals, biennials, and perennials. 

Annual weeds bear blossoms and seeds the first year 
and then die entirely. This group includes many of our 
most abundant weeds, such as rough pigweed, lamb's-quar- 
ter, Russian tumbleweed, the large sunflower, horseweed 
or fleabane, ragweed, Spanish needles, buffalo bur, purs- 
lane, cocklebur, corn cockle, mustard, chickweed, and field 
dodder. 

The annual weeds are more commonly found in with 
annual crops such as grain, corn, potatoes, and garden 
annuals; this is chiefly because the weed seeds sown each 
year by the plants find ready lodgement in the freshly plowed 
or cultivated fields and gardens. 

One of the easiest ways to get rid of a bad field of annual 
weeds is to rotate the crops by thickly seeding the field to 
clover or grasses. Annual weeds are seldom found in such 
fields, particularly after the first cutting of the hay. 

Biennial weeds are those plants which live two years, 
the first year making a vigorous growth and storing some 
nourishment, but bearing no blossoms nor seeds until the 
second summer. There are not many common kinds of 



30 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



weeds in this group. Burdock, teasel, bull thistle, wild 
carrot (Fig. 10a) and parsnip are common biennial weeds. 

Perennial weeds live several years and bear blossoms 
and seeds each year. The roots or underground parts live 
over from year to year, and usually new leaves and stems 
are sent up from the old roots in the spring. Such weeds are 
most commonly found in pastures, hay-fields, lawns, road- 
sides, and fence rows. They grow in places where their 
roots may live undisturbed in the soil from year to year. 
Because of this we may conclude that rotation of crops will 



iii^iiniiliiiii' 



•fi 




m4- li 







Fig. 14 . — Seed samples in wooden case, bottles held in place with shoestring. 
(Agricultural Education.) 

help destroy them. When a hay-field is plowed and harrowed 
for corn, nearly all kinds of perennial weeds are killed. 

Examples of perennials are: Canada thistle, quack or 
couch grass, Johnson grass, curled or yellow dock, smart- 
weed, dandelion (Fig. 106), golden hawkweed, milk-weed, nut 
sedge, ox-eye daisy, rib-grass plantain, wide-leaved plan- 
tain, red field sorrel, toad flax, white and purple fall asters, 
wild garlic, chicory. 

FiXERCiSF,.— Collecting Weed Specimens. — In the fall of 
the year a collection of weeds should be made by the student. 
One set of the specimens should be kept at the school. They 
may be dried by spreading out the plants between large 



PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 31 

folded newspapers. Put the pile of papers and plants on 
the floor; place over them a board and stone or other heavy 
object. This pressure will drive the moisture from the plants 



Fig. 15. — Sewls mounted in holes in a wooden board and covered with glass 
They are arranged by colors to aid in identifying other seeds. (Agricultural 
Education.) 

into the papers. Change the papers from day to day until 
the plants feel quite dry. They may then be fastened to 
sheets of paper or cardboard eleven by seventeen inches. 
Find the names of the weeds from any one who knows them, 



82 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

group them into annuals, biennials, and perennials. U.S. Far- 
mers' Bulletin 28 will be of much help in the study of weeds. 
Exercise. — Seed Collection. — Let the pupils bring to 
school in the fall such weed seeds as they can find upon the 
known weeds. These may be carried in small papers or old 
envelopes on which the name of the plant is written. These 
may be transferred to small bottles as in Fig. 14, or to holes 
in a seed board made like the one shown in Fig. 15. A col- 
lection of farm and garden seeds should also be made for 
the school to use. 

REVIEW. 

1. Tell of the value of sifting and fanning grain which is to be used 
for seed. 

2. From which {plants in a pardon should the gardener save seeds ? 

3. Describe the ear-row method of improving corn. 

4. Describe the hill-row method of improving seed potatoes. 

5. Tell why weeds are so prevalent and give a remedy. 

6. Why should farm seeds be examined before they are purchased 
or sown ? 

7. Tell how to analyze a sample of clover seed. 

8. Tell how to mount a sample of grass seed to study its value. 

9. Give a munber of advantages from knowing the vitality of seeds. 

10. Describe the plate method of seed testing. 

11. Describe some other good method of testing seeds. 

12. Tell of some ways in which seeds are sometimes adulterated, 

13. What are immature seeds ? Why not plant such ? 

14. Tell how seeds should be stored. 

15. What are noxious weeds ? 

16. What are annuals ? biennials? perennials? 

17. Where are annual wecnls most connnonly found ? 

18. In what places are pereiuiials most commonly found ? 

19. Name several annual weeds. 

20. Name several common biennial weeds. 

21. Name all the perennial weeds you can. 

22. Of what value is a collection of weed specimens in school ? 

23. Why should every one know the common weeds ? 

24. Would a collection of seeds properly labeled be of use in 
school ? Why ? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 145, Carbon Bisulphid as au 
Insecticide ; also Nos. 28, 8G, 188, 194, 260, and 382. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 33 



CHAPTER III. 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS. 

The Raising of Fruit Trees. — Plants propagate them- 
selves naturally either by seeds or by buds. One or both of 
these natural methods is used by the farmer for all plants 
and crops. Very few fruits "come true" from seed because 
the seeds are formed by cross-pollination. The pollen is 
carried by insects and wind from other varieties. For this 
reason the nurserymen, who produce the young fruit trees 
or bushes, must avoid the use of seeds. With such fruits seeds 
may be used in an effort to secure new varieties, or to pro- 
duce stocks on which to grow the improved varieties; but 
the standard sorts are multiplied by some form of bud 
propagation, such as grafting, true budding, layering, and 
making cuttings. 

Propagation of Apples. — One common method for the 
production of young apple trees involves the use of grafting. 
It is called the root-grafting process. 

First. — Seeds from cider-presses are planted in garden 
rows and the young trees cultivated for one summer to get 
the greatest growth i)ossible. These trees would probably 
never bear good apples if they were allowed to reach matu- 
rity, but they serve admirably as the stocks on which to grow 
good trees. They are taken up roots and all, in the fall, 
tied in bundles of one hundred each, and well stored in moist- 
ened sawdust in a very cold cellar. 

Second.— Well-matured shoots of one-j'ear wood are cut 
for scions from the tops of good specimens of apple trees of 
the varieties we may wish to propagate. These are properly 
labelled, tied in bundles, and stored in the same manner as 
the seedling trees. This is done in late fall. 
3 



34 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Third. — The actual work of grafting the tops of the 
desired varieties onto the roots of the young seedHngs is to 
be done during the winter months. This work is done in 
the cool cellar and the little grafted trees are then tied into 
bundles and stored until warm spring weather. 

Fourth. — The little trees are set in good rich garden soil, 
deep enough to cover the union or grafted point well. The top 
of the plant with a bud or two will be above the surface of the 
ground. The dirt should be well tramped around the grafts. 
Details of Root=grafting. — The tops are cut from the 
young seedling trees and destroyed. The top-shoots from 
good trees are inserted upon the roots in their place. The 
new tops are called scions. Thej^ may be only a few inches 
long and contain from three to six buds. The roots may be 

either used entire for each new 
tree; or they may be cut into 
pieces four to six inches long, 
and a graft made on each piece. 
Whip or Tongue Graft. — The 
kind of graft or union to make 
for apple root grafts is the one 
that is known by nurserymen 
as the tongue or whip graft. 
This is shown in Fig. 16; A 
represents the upper end of the 
piece of root cut so that there 
is a tongue ready to sHp be- 
neath a similar tongue made in 
the scion, shown at B. As 
soon as cut they are slipped 
together very firmly, as shown 
at C. Now a piece of waxed knitting cotton is wrapped 
about the grafted portion to hold the parts snugly together. 
It is necessary to have the root and scion of the same 
diameter or nearly so. The cambium, or growing layer, is 




Fig. 16. — Steps in root-grafting 
of apples. A, the small root tongue 
cut; B, the scion with tongue cut; 
C, the two in place ready to tie with 
woven cotton. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 35 

just beneath the bark of each. If the cambium of the scion 
is in perfect contact with the cambium of the root, growth 
is likely to take place, otherwise they will probably not live. 

Exercise. — Root-grafting. — Let the students have some 
practice in making root-grafts. Until the method is well 
learned, it is best to use willow or any other convenient 
switches to represent the roots and scions of apples. The 
second lesson may be with the real apple roots and apple 
scions. These may be secured in the neighborhood or from 
any nurseryman. P'or this exercise and the exercise in 
budding any wide thin-bladed pocket knives will do if better 
ones are not available. Have them very sharp. 

Exercise. — Making Grafting Wax. — Melt together in a 
tin can or pail one pound of rosin, one-half pound of beeswax 
or paraffin, and four ounces of tallow; when well melted and 
mixed allow the mass to cool a little and then pour it into 
a pail of cold water. Let one or two pupils rub tallow on 
their hands, work and pull the mass, as they would pull 
candy, until it is of a light yellow color; make it into rolls 
and lay on a sheet of greased wrapping paper to harden. 

Exercise. — Waxing Cotton for Grafting. — While the wax 
is melted, in the preceding exercise, put into it for a few 
moments a ball of No. 18 or No. 20 knitting cotton. Remove 
it and let it cool on a sheet of greased paper. Pieces of this 
six or eight inches long will be used to wrap around each 
root-graft and may be used in the budding exercises. 

Budding Apple Trees. — New apple trees of the preferred 
varieties may be propagated by budding. This method is 
now quite common among nurserymen. The young seedling 
trees for stocks are grown in good soil for one season, or 
until August, from seeds sown the preceding spring. 

Scions or bud sticks are taken from the new growth on 
trees we wish to propagate. This is done in August or early 
September. The leaves are all clipped off leaving about 
one-half inch of each leaf stem on the twig to serve as bud 



86 



PRODIJCTIVE FARMING 



handles. The budding is done immediately. One bud from 
the budding stick is inserted just under the bark of the little 
seedling tree a few inches above the ground. How to insert 
the bud will be described under ''Budding Peaches." 

The little seedling is not disturbed in this method of 
propagating apple trees. The roots are left growing in the 
soil. The new bud becomes united to the surroimding 
tissues that fall. All the top above the bud is pruned away 
(Fig. 17) just as soon as the new bud 
starts growth in spring, and all the 
natural buds of the seedling stock are 
rubbed off. Then the new bud makes 
a vigorous growth and is soon devel- 
oped into the new tree top. 

Another method is to insert the 
buds of the desired varieties in the 
little seedling trees the following 
spring. In this case the scions are 
taken when dormant and stored in a 
cold cellar until about June. This 
method is quite common in some sec- 
tions, particularly where the hot, dry 
weather of August would be injurious. 
After one season's growth the 
most vigorous budded or root-grafted 
trees are ready to transplant to the 
orchard. They are then called one- 
year old trees. Many apple growers prefer to leave them 
in the nursery one more year, and always select two- 
year-old trees for the setting out of new apple orchards. 
Budding Peaches and Plums. — Improved varieties of 
peaches and plums are propagated by budding. 

Stocks for this purpose are usually started from pits of 
native or seedling peaches and plums. Special kinds of stocks, 
however, are desired for a few particular varieties of plums. 




Fig. 17.— Method of 
pruning a budded tree 
after the new shoot starts. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 37 

The pits of peaches and plums are hard to start into 
grow'th, the shell is too hard for the germ to burst through. 
They must bo frozen over winter or cracked by hand. Fre- 
quently layers of peach pits are covered with a little sand in 
shallow boxes. This is called stratifying the pits. These are 
left exposed to the weather over winter. The action of the 
frost should crack them. In spring they are to be planted 
in rows three feet apart in rich garden soil. They are given 
thorough tillage until August, when they are to be budded. 





Fig. 18. — Method of budding a young fruit tree. A, the bud and surrounding 
parts cut from a good variety; B, the T-shaped cut in hark of tree to be budded; 
C, the same rolled back ready to receive the good bud; D, the good bud set in place 
under bark; E, the bud and bark tied securely iu place with waxed knitting cotton 
or with rafSa fiber. 



Peach and plum scions or budding sticks are cut from 
the new growth on the trees of the desired varieties. The 
leaves are trimmed off, but stems are left near each bud to 
aid in handling when the bud is removed from the scion. 
The buds are inserted on the stocks right away. The oper- 
ator must get downi close to the ground to do the work 
properly. The top of the seedling stock is cut away early 
the following spring before the buds swell. This forces all 
the sap of the root system to the new bud and the growth will 
be rapid. One-year-old trees of peach and plum varieties 



38 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



should be transplanted to the orchard. If left in the nur- 
sery rows longer than for one year's growth from the bud, 
they are Hkely to become misshapen or overgrown and will 
be undesirable trees for the orchard. 

How Budding is Done. — A good, healthy bud is cut from 
the scion with the bark surrounding it in the form of a shield 
(Fig. 18, A). A cut is now made through the bark of the 
stock, in the form of a letter T, shown at B; this is pref- 
erably done on the north side 
of the stock to avoid the hot 
sun. Turn back the edges of 
the bark as shown at C. 
Insert the bud into its new 
home just under the bark as 
shown at D. The top of the 
shield must be as low as the 
top of the T. Tie the bark 
down tightly over the edges of 
h-ll^^V •\ ' ^^!$^^iii^VB' < ^^^ shield as at E; waxed 
I \^^H{ ' ikl^ES^^^B*- knitting cotton. No. 18 or 20, 

may be used for this, as it will 
not grow into the bark and 
stop circulation; raffia fiber 
is also good for this purpose. 
Exercise. — Practice in 
Budding. — Twigs from willow 
trees may be placed in water in a warm room in the winter 
and the bark well loosened in a few days. Use these to 
practise the method of budding just described. 

Top=working of Trees. — Tree tops may be changed from 
one variety to another. If an apple tree bears poor fruit 
it may be changed to bear good apples. This is done by 
top-working, as it is called. Many branches are cut off the 
poor tree, and in their places may be inserted new buds or 
grafted new scions of the variety desired (Fig. 19). This 




Fig. 19. — Cleft -grafting a fruit tree. 
The tree is severely cut back and good 
scions are grafted on. The boys are top- 
working the tree. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 39 



work is often done in June with scions held dormant in the 
cellar ; or it may be done in August with scions of the current 
year's growth. Top-working is accomplished by one of three 
methods: budding, or tongue-grafting, or cleft-grafting. The 
first two methods have been described. Cleft-grafting is 
now less commonly used. (For a description of this method 
reference is made to U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 157 and 408.) 

Tip=Iayering. — This is the most common way of propa- 
gating black raspberries. The soil is cultivated at both sides 
of the raspberry row, and in late July or August the tips of 
the long canes, or stems ; are bent to the ground and slightly 
covered with soil (Fig. 20a). They will send down roots and 




Fig. 20o. — Tip-layering. The young plants have taken root. 

Fig. 206. — Vine-layering. The young plants are ready to be cut apart. 

develop new plants. The canes are cut loose from the young 
plants, which may then be transplanted to a new garden. 

Vine=layering. — Several kinds of vines, including certain 
varieties of grapes, are propagated by layering (Fig. 206). 
A shallow furrow is made and a vine is laid in it and parts 
of it covered with soil with other parts exposed to the light. 
Shoots will start up and roots will be formed. The new 
plants may be cut apart with a spade; they are then ready 
to transplant to desired places. 

Mound=layering. — This is used for the propagation of 
gooseberries, quinces, and many ornamental shrul)s. The 
earth is mounded up around the lower branches, which will 
then send new roots into the soil (Fig. 21). The following 



40 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fig. 21. — Mound-layering. The 
soil is mounded among the shoots, 
and new roots will be formed. 



fall or spring the plants may be dug; the branches with their 
new roots will form new plants; then they are cut away 
from the parent plant. 

Division of Plants. — Some plants naturally form roots 
from the lowest parts or send up new shoots near the parent 

stalks. After the plant is dug it 
becomes an easy matter to pull 
or cut the parent plant into a 
number of smaller plants. This 
method of propagation is used 
in multiplying purple lilac, rhu- 
barb, asparagus, and many 
shrul)s and herbs. 

Cuttings. — There are a few 
fruit plants and many others 
that can be propagated by cuttings. Currants, gooseberries, 
and several kinds of grapes may be multiplied by cuttings 
of the ripe wood. Blackberries are propagated by root- 
cuttings, — pieces of the roots 
dropped in a furrow and en- 
tirely covered. Many kinds 
of houseplants will grow from 
slips or cuttings of green 
wood ; these are sometimes 
called soft-wood cuttings. 

Cuttings of ripe wood, six 
inches or more in length, 
should be taken in the fall 
after the leaves have dropped. 
They are cut from the new- 
est growth, and the strongest 
shoots are selected (Fig. 22) . 
When tied into bundles they should be properly labelled and 
stored in damp saAvdust in a cold cellar. In late spring 
they are set in deep furrows in rich garden soil with one 




Fig. 22. — Four forms of grape-vine 
cuttings. A, single eye or single bud; 
B, two buds; C, heel cutting; I), mallet 
cutting. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 41 

or two buds showing above ground. The soil mast be 
pressed firmly about them (Fig. 23). In the case of grape 
cuttings one bud only is left projecting above the surface of 
the soil. 

Exercise. — Starting Slips at Home or at School. — In a 
shallow box of moist, clean 
sand, plant a number of cut- 
tings of several house-plants. 
Keep the box in a warm room 
and water the soil frequently. 
These slips are made by 
taking a few inches of the 
healthy shoots and removing 
a large portion of the older 
leaves. For this exercise 
many forms of winter house- 
plants may be tried — begonia, 
carnation, geranium, fuchsia, 
roots in the sand, they may be transplanted to rich soil in 
well-drained pots or boxes. 




Fig. 23. — Cutting of red currants, 
showing depth for planting, allowing one 
or two buds to protrude. 



After the slips have formed 



REVIEW. 

1. AVhat are the two general plans by which plants naturally prop- 
agate themselves? 

2. Name four forms of bud propagation used by nurserymen. 

3. Describe the starting of stocks for the budding or grafting of 
young apple trees. 

4. Tell when to take scions and how to store them for winter root- 
grafting. 

5. When are root-grafts set out? and how? 

6. Describe the details of root-grafting. 

7. What is the cambium layer? Where is it? 

8. Tell how to make grafting wax and how to wax knitting cotton. 

9. What are used for stocks and for scions in the budding of young 
apple trees? 

10. At what two times of year is apple budding done? 

11. Tell how peach and plum stocks are started. 

12. When are peach scions cut from the trees? When is the budding 
usually done? 

13. What is the purpose of top-working old trees? 

14. How is this done? 



42 PRODUCTIVE FAR^VnNG 

15. Describe tip-layering of black raspberries. 

16. Describe vine-layering for grapes. 

17. What is mound-layering? 

18. Describe the cutting, storing, and planting of grape or currant 
cuttings. 

19. What plants may be propagated by soft-wood cuttings? 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins : 113, The Apple and How to 
Grow it; 157, The Propagation of Plants; 408, School Exercises in 
Plant Production ; 423, Forest Nurseries for Schools. 



CHAPTER IV. 
HOW SOILS ARE FORMED. 

The soil is one of those common things most of us think 
very little about. We see it every day, we walk on it, we 
eat and wear its products, but we very seldom give it a 
thought. It may even surprise some of us to know that we 
get from the soil not only our food, our houses and our cloth- 
ing, but that all animal life comes indirectly from the soil. 
For every living thing comes originally from two primary 
sources, the air and the soil. All elements or substances 
found in plants or animals are from either the soil or the air. 

The foods which plants secure from the air are too abun- 
dant to ever become exhausted by large farm crops. No 
human efforts are required to make them available to plants, 
except for the securing of nitrogen from air, when inoculation 
with certain bacteria may be necessary. The foods taken 
from the soil on the other hand are much less available, and 
the ability of plants to secure them may depend very largely 
on the efforts of the farmer. It is necessary for the farmer 
first of all to study his soil to see how he can make its plant- 
food most available. 

What Soil is. — That part of the earth's surface which 
can be tilled, and in which plants grow, is called soil. It is 
the loose, highly decomposed layer of mineral matter result- 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 



43 



ing, primarily, from rock decay, which furnishes food and 
foothold for plant and animal life. 

Soil Builders. — Soil is derived from two main classes 
of substances; rock and organic matter. Rocks crumble 
into fine particles. They are gradually being changed into 
soil. Plants and animals decay to form the organic matter 
or humus in the soil. The humus present in our fields is 
chiefly of vegetable origin. 




r:-- - 



1 



Fig. 24. 



-A high bank of wind-blown soil. Notice where it has nearly covered the 
fence. (Plant Industiy.) 



How Soils are Formed. — Certain forces are constantly 
at work changing rock into soil and making soil particles 
finer. These forces are: (1) air; (2) water; (3) temperature; 
(4) plants; (5) burrowing animals; and (6) minute plant 
and animal organisms. These forces act both physically and 
chemically. 

Exercise. — Soil Forming. — Find places near the school 
or at home where any of the agencies mentioned are at work 
forming soil. Tell of the places and what you have seen. 
Can you find places where water has carried soil? How are 
the little guUeys formed in hillsides? Where is the soil 
carried to? 



44 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The Action of Air and Temperature Changes. — The action 
of the air and the changes in temperature, which together we 
call weathering, is of many kinds. The heat of the sun causes 
the rock to expand. As all of the substances which make up 
a rock do not expand the same amount, the rock breaks and 
the particles flake off the surface. In regions where the soil 
is not protected by vegetation the wind becomes an import- 
ant soil former (Fig. 24). The particles of soil are caught up 
by the wind and hurled against rocks and against cliffs, and 
grind the surface of the rocks and undermine the cliffs. This 




Fig. 25a. — A little stream falling many feet will wear away the hardest rock,. 
The fine particles help to make up the soil. (Plant Industry.) 

Fig. 256. — A muddy water-fall. Soil is carried by swift current to the low land. 



little agent does a realiy large work. Then there is a chemical 
action of the air, in which certain substances in the air, as 
oxygen and carbonic acid, unite with certain substances in 
the rock and cause it to decompose. Such an action of the 
air is termed oxidation and is a slow burning or decay. 

A good example of weathering may be observed in the 
rapid crumbling of shale on exposure to the air. In such 
cases the air, temperature, and water each play an important 
part. 

Exercise. — The Action of Air on Iron. — A familiar 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 



45 



illustration of oxidation is seen when iron is exposed to the 
air; the red rust that forms is an oxide of iron — a substance 
very different from the iron itself. To test for ourselves 
the action of air on iron we may take a piece of bright iron 
or steel, as the blade of a knife. Cover one end with linseed 
oil or wagon grease, and leave the other end exposed to the 
action of rain and air for a few days. Notice the effect on 
the exposed part. What lesson on the care of plows and 
other farm tools may we learn from this? 




Fig. 26. — Abroad valley of ricli alluvial soil. 
part of the surrounding hills 



This soil at some time was chiefly 
(Plant Industry.) 



Water is the most powerful agent in decomposing or 
breaking down rock (Fig. 25a). Its action, especially in dis- 
solving rocks, is very important. Nearly all rocks are more 
or less affected by this action, and some, as limestone, are 
easily affected. 

Water breaks up rock by freezing. Most rocks contain 
cracks or openings into which the water readily flows; when 
the water freezes, it expands and forces the rock apart. 
Solid rock is thus gradually broken to pieces by the freezing 



46 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



and thawing of water in it. This force is especially active 
in cold climates. 

Exercise. — To Show the Action of Freezing Water. — Fill 
a small bottle with water and place it where the water will 
freeze. The bottle will probably be broken by the expansion 
due to the change in temperature. 

Water also makes the rock particles finer. After rains 
the flowing of water grinds the fragments together. The 
force of running water is continually wearing them smaller 
(Fig. 256) . The finest particles are first carried away by the 
water to valleys below (Figs. 26 and 27). 




Fig. 27. — A rocky hill changing into soil. The soil is gradually carried to the valley 
by rains and mountain streams. (Plant Industry.) 

Water in the form of glacial ice, carrying sand and boul- 
ders frozen into the under side, wears down the rocks over 
which it passes and carries the material with it (Fig. 28). 

The effects of plants in the rotting of rocks are of two 
kinds: (1) The roots grow into the crevices found in rocks. 
This in time forces the rock particles apart (Fig. 29). 
Roots of trees often lift large rocks and cause them to crack 
by their own weight. This aids the rocks to crumble into 
soil grains. (2) When the plants decay acids are formed, 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 



47 



that help the water to soften or dissolve the rocks. Every 
one has seen rocks covered with lichens and mosses. When 
these are taken away one can often see where the rocks 
have been eaten into by the small plants, due to the action 
described. As this process of growth and decay continues for 
ages, the soil is gradually improved until it will produce 
plants useful to man. 




T^.^ . 



<^. 



Fig. 28. — View of Victoria glacier, several miles in length. S, mountain snow; 
D, dirt and broken rock carried by the moving snow and ice; L, broken rock wliere 
the moving glacier rubs the bank or side of the valley; C, central line of dirt and 
rocks brought by the edges of two moving streams of ice and snow; T, terminus or 
end of the glacier where the sun melts the snow and leaves the rock and .soil. The 
finest soil is carried by running water to the broad field farther down the valley. 



How Animals Help. — Burrowing animals, such as the 
ground squirrel and the prairie dog, earthworms and insects 
living in the ground, as well as rabbits, gophers, and wolves, 
aid in preparing the soil for the growth of plants. They 
often burrow deep into the ground; the openings aid in free 
movement of air and water, and roots can enter the soil more 



48 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



easily. The animals also drag into their homes nesting mate- 
rials and other vegetable matter. When this decays it aids 
in forming fertile soil. 

How Soils are Moved. — The same forces that form soil 
also carry it away. Soil is almost constantly moving from 
high lands to low lands. It is deepest in the valley, and 
thinnest at the top of the hill. Great furrows are formed in 

the hillsides after heavj' rains. 
The swollen and muddy 
streams carry the soil to lower 
parts of the land. When 
rivers overflow, they always 
leave a deposit of soil which 
was carried by the water. 

Transported soil is any soil 
moved from the place where it 
was formed. It is described 
by different names or terms, 
depending on the means by 
which it was transported; and 
these different means of trans- 
portation leave the soil in very 
different condition as regards 
its general nature and appear- 
ance and use for growing crops. 
Go out into a plowed field 
after a heavy rain and see 
where little gulleys have been worn. Follow one of these 
and see how much soil was carried by the water that ran 
off. Notice the size of the particles that were carried. 

Soil deposited by water is called alluvial. It is found 
in valleys and river-beds, beds of old lakes, ponds and 
marshes. (Fig. 26.) 

Soil deposited from ice is called drift soil. It has been 
formed by the action of glaciers, which are large bodies of 




Fig. 29. — A large rock split by the 
growth of a tree near Lansing, Mich. 



HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 49 

ice moving like rivers, carrying quantities of earth and 
rocks. The results of ancient glacial action are found in 
many places. Rocks with deep scratches show the wearing 
and grinding effects of the moving masses of ice. Drift or 
glacial soil is easily recognized by the presence of rounded 
rocks or boulders. It is usually fertile because of the variety 
of mineral substances brought from far and near. Much 
drift soil is found throughout the northern states and Canada, 
east of the Rocky Mountains. 

Two other kinds of transported soil should be studied. 
One, known as colluvial soil, occurs on mountain slopes and 
steep hillsides, and is the mixed mass of soil and rocks brought 
down by avalanches and landslides. Such soil is not generally 
in condition to grow good crops. The other, known as wind- 
drifted or aeolian soil, is found in arid or semi-arid regions, 
that is, in places where there is very little rain-fall and the 
soil is dry, and there is little vegetation to hold the soil. 
This soil is carried by the winds and is deposited in dunes 
or drifts like snow. These dunes sometimes cover cultivated 
fields, forests, and even villages. As this soil is shifting, 
plants frequently do not have an opportunity to grow and 
hold it. (Fig. 24.) 

REVIEW. 

1. What is soil ? 

2. From what is soil made ? 

3. Name four forces which are making soil. 

4. How does the air help to make soil ? 

5. Tell of the influences of temperature in crumbling rocks. 

6. Tell of the ways in which water helps to crumble rocks. 

7. Tell where and when you have seen running water carrying 
fine soil or mud. 

8. In what kinds of places is this mud deposited ? 

9. Do plants help to form soil ? How ? 

10. In what ways do animals help to make soil useful ? 

11. What is transported soil? 

12. Describe the several kinds, and tell where they are likely to be 
found. 

Reference. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 421, Control of Blowing 
Soils. 



50 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



CHAPTER V. 
KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 

Soils used in the production of crops are of many kinds. 
Some of these differ widely from each other in their physical 
nature and in their ability to produce good return to the 
owner. It is the purpose of this chapter to point out the 
characteristics of the most Important types of soil. 

Kinds of Soil. — Soil may be divided into four natural 
classes — sandy, loamy, clayey, and peaty — according to the 
proportion of sand, clay, and vegetable matter which it con- 
tains. Between these groups or classes we may have very 
many others, depending on the combinations of these types 
and the sizes of the soil particles. 

A loam is a soil intermediate between sand and clay. 

A marly soil is a combination of clay and fine lime mate- 
rial. 

Silt is a soil whose particles are slightly larger than clay 
particles but finer than sand. 

We should mention also limestone soils. These result from 
the crumbling of limestone (Fig. 30). 

Sandy Soil.— Sand is formed from sandstone. It does 
not produce large crops, for it is poor in plant-food and 
moisture. A soil made of sand only would need to be changed 
a great deal to be of any use in farming, as it would produce 
no crops in its natural condition. Soil with much sand in it 
is light and open and allows the entrance of air, and it can 
absorb and hold little moisture. Sandy soil is so loosely 
held together that water and air pass through it readily. 
Crops on such land become parched if the weather is hot and 
dry. 

This type of soil dries quickly even when the season 
is wet. Then large crops may be grown better on sandy soil 



KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 51 



than on clay, if enough plant food is provided. Compact 
and sticky soils produce poor crops in wet seasons. The 
farmer finds it easy to plow and cultivate a sandy field. It 
is adapted to quick-growing crops, such as early vegetables; 
and sweet potatoes do well on such a soil. It may be culti- 
vated without injury when wet. When it lies over clay 
under-soil or subsoil it may have a high degree of fertility. 










-^• 






Fig. 30. — Peach trees in rocky soil. After the soil is plowed, the rains soon wash 
the fine soil away through the top of tlie rocks and leave the surface as shown in the 
picture. The roots of trees are in the finer parts of the soil and the growth is good. 
(Experiment Station, N. J.) 

Clay Soil. — Clay soil is much more finely divided than 
sand. When wet it is plastic and sticky. The latter property 
makes it useful for making bricks and tiles. Some farm soils 
are largely clay; but clay alone does not make a good farm 
soil and its plant-food is not readily available. 

Soil composed of as much as forty per cent of clay may 
be good farm soil, and may be well adapted to the growth 
of grains and grasses. It should not have over fifty per cent 
of clay present. The finely divided particles of clay adhere 



52 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

so closely as to make the access and circulation of air, heat, 
and moisture difficult; the soil is, therefore, cold and heavy. 
It is hard to work, and, unless well drained, crops are likely 
to suffer both in wet and in dry seasons; in wet seasons 
because the moisture and air do not pass through it readily 
and the surplus water does not drain away, and in dry sea- 
sons because the land becomes so hard as to prevent the 
growth of roots, and the small amount of moisture in the 
soil is not available to plants because it does not readily 
circulate. 

Clay and Sandy Soil Compared. — Clay soil is almost the 
opposite of sandy soil, in many respects. Grains and larger 
masses of sand do not stick together; if wet and moulded in 
the hand, they will soon fall apart. Clay may be moulded 
into any shape, and is sometimes used for making pottery 
because the particles stick together when moist. Sand, 
being open and porous, quickly loses moisture and plant- 
food. Clay is so compact that it retains moisture and plant- 
food. Sand admits heated air and soon becomes dry and 
warm; clay admits air more slowly and remains wet and cold. 
Because of these differences which make sandy soil easy to 
work and clay soil hard to work, sandy soil is said to be light 
and clay soil heavy, while in weight a quart cup full of sandy 
soil is really heavier than the same amount of clay soil. 
Both are valuable farm soils when supplied with enough 
plant^food and vegetable mould, or humus. 

Exercise. — To Show the Difference between Sand and 
Clay. — Use rather pure sand and pure clay. Make a wet 
ball of each the size of a hen's egg. Place the two wet masses 
on a board to dry. When dry, examine and note the dif- 
ferences. Which ball dried more quickly? Which is harder 
to work when dry? 

Exercise. — To Compare the Water-holding Power of 
Sand, Clay, and Loam. — In three boxes about the size of 
cigar boxes place respectively some sand, clay, and black 



KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 53 

loam, which we have learned is intermediate between sand 
and clay. Wet all of them equally. Place the boxes in the 
free air or sun and allow them to dry. Which soil loses its 
moisture first? Which last? 

Peat or vegetable matter makes up a large part of some 
soils, particularly in low places. The vegetable matter may 
be more or less decayed, and is often called peat. It is found 
in bogs and marshes and other wet places. When the peat 
has nearly all decomposed it is called muck. If peat and muck 
soils are well drained and are supplied with enough lime, they 
are very productive. They are often used for such market- 
garden crops as cabbage, onions, celery, and cauliflower. 

Humus. — Partly decayed vegetable matter in soil is called 
humus. It has a blackish color. In newly cleared farm soil 
it is derived from the dead roots and leaves of a former vege- 
tation. Leaf mould found in forests is largely humus. On 
farms it is secured by plowing under waste materials such as 
weeds, stubble, roots, vines, and leaves. Farm manure is 
valuable for this purpose. Special crops are often grown to 
be plowed under, and when so used are called green manure. 
When these rot in the soil, humus is formed. 

Humus is very useful in all soils. It improves a sandy 
soil because it increases its power to take and hold moisture, 
supplies it with plant-food, and thus increases its productiv- 
ity. It will absorb and retain more moisture than any other 
part of the soil. It improves clay soil by loosening it, thus 
helping the circulation of air and moisture. It is less likely 
to clod and crust. Humus is the main immediate source of 
nitrogen, so necessary in the growth of all farm crops. In 
the formation of humus other plant-foods are set free, — but 
best of all is its improvement of the structure or texture of 
the soil, resulting in better drainage, better ventilation, and 
deeper root growth. 

Lime in Soil. — When lime is found in soil it is usually in 
the form of particles of limestone or marble, but it may be 



54 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

in solution in the soil water. It is a valuable substance in 
soil. It furnishes the important plant-food, calcium. Lime- 
stone crumbles or dissolves easily and helps to make avail- 
able other plant-foods in the soil. The lime aids in the decay 
of vegetable matter and in the formation of nitrates from 
decaying vegetable matter. It improves the physical con- 
dition of soil ; its presence helps to make heavy clay soil loose 
and more easily worked and to facilitate the passage of 
water and air through it. In small quantities it improves 
sandy soil by causing the particles to adhere more closely to 
each other, and consequently, to hold moisture better. It 
prevents harm from acids and certain other poisonous com- 
pounds in soil. It lessens the injury from certain plant 
diseases that are transmitted through the soil. Soil contain- 
ing an abundance of Hme is usually of good character. It is 
easy to work and should be well adapted to grains and fruits. 

While lime is very valuable in the soil, it is possible for 
it to become harmful. Too much of it in sandy soil or grav- 
elly soil is more harmful than in clay soils. It may cause 
other plant-foods to be liberated faster than they can be 
used by the crop, and they will be wasted. It may cause the 
vegetable matter or humus to decay too fast; it may reduce 
the yield of certain crops, as cranberries, and watermelons 
which prefer acid soil. 

A loam is a soil consisting of a mixture of sand and clay 
and containing humus. If two-thirds of the mixture is sand 
it is called a sandy loam. If one-half of the soil is clay it is 
called a heavy clay loam. Soils between these two extremes 
are called loams or medium loams. When gravel or coarse 
sand and lime are present in considerable amounts, we have 
gravelly or limy loam. Loam soil is the best for most farm 
purposes. Sand, clay, and humus are improved as they 
become mixed together. 

Medium loams are the best soils for farming if there is 
a large amount of humus present. The farmer says, "they 



KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 55 

work up well." They are usually not too wet nor too dry. 
They do not bake and crack so badly as the heavy clay soils 
do. Clods are less likely to form. They hold moisture better 
than light sandy soils. Corn, cotton, potatoes, fruits, vege- 
tables, grains, and grasses all do well on the medium loams. 
Texture of Soil. — The texture of soil is determined by the 
size and shape of the particles of which it is composed and 
the way in which these particles are grouped in kernels or 
crumbs or larger masses. The texture determines to a large 




Fig. 31. — Soils of different te.xture. The coarse or open texture may be improved 
by tillage and by packing with roller or planker. 



extent the agricultural value of soil (Fig. 31). It is a fac- 
tor to consider when studying the composition of soil, as it 
determines largely the capacity of soil to retain such foods as 
may become available for plants. 

Soil such as sand is open in texture and freely admits 
water, which quickly passes downward, carrying soil fertil- 
ity with it. Open soil is more likely to lose its plant food 
than a soil that is fairly close in texture. Clay loams, in re- 
taining water, also retain their plant-food better. We call 
them close in texture. An open texture also allows too rapid 
decay of vegetable matter. On the other hand, a very com- 
pact soil such as clay is undesirable. When there is rain it 
puddles, and neither air nor water can enter and circulate. 



56 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

When it dries it becomes very hard and unworkable. A good 
farm soil should be between these two conditions, — open 
enough to permit the proper entrance and movement of air 
and water, and yet compact enough to prevent the washing 
out of plant-food. 

Farm Soil. — The best farm soil does not belong strictly 
to any of these classes already described, but is one which is 
a mixture of sand, clay, and humus in certain proportions. 
With reference to the proportions of sand and clay present, 
the useful farm and garden soils may be divided into three 
general classes, — sandy loam, medium loam, and clay loam 

(Fig. 31). A perfect soil is 
one whose physical nature 
and chemical composition 
make it best adapted for 
the purpose or crop in- 
tended. It contains just 
enough sand to enable it to 

,. «-. -A subsoil plow has a long i i . ^ 

It is used in the bottom of furrows aosorD air and moisturc m 

behind a turning plow where the subsoil , 

is too compact. It stirs the subsoil but propCr amOUUtS and tO 

does not bring it to the surface. i •, i -i 

make it warm and easily 
worked. It contains enough clay to keep it from getting too 
warm and to prevent too rapid loss of water. Lime must 
be present to perform its several duties. Humus is there to 
control the amounts of moisture and air, to furnish nitrogen, 
and to help produce valuable chemical changes in the soil. 
There are a few,. other conditions necessary to provide suffi- 
cient plant-food. 

Perfect soils are hard to find. They are also hard to make 
in any of the known ways of soil-improvement. We usually 
can make slight improvements in the soils found in nature. 
Since this is true we must select crops for the farm which are 
best adapted to the soil found there. 

The subsoil lies under the soil, which generally occupies 
the surface six to twelve inches. There are several differ- 




KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 57 

ences between soil and subsoil: The soil is usually darker 
in color because it contains more organic or vegetable matter. 
It is more easily worked and less compact than the subsoil 
(Fig. 32). Air and moisture usually circulate in the surface 
soil better, and its plant-food is more available. The subsoil 
serves as a storehouse for moisture and with some plants is 
penetrated by the roots. Its character materially affects 
the crops grown on the soil. When the underlying rocks 
have rotted they make the subsoil. When the subsoils have 
rotted thev are more of the nature of the surface soil. 




Fig. 33. 



-Teachers and students taking soU samples and studying soil. 
(Agricultural Education.) 



Names of Soils. — In the following list the soils are ar- 
ranged with reference to the fine and coarse particles they 
contain: Clay, heavy clay loam, clay loam, loam, sandy 
loam, light sandy loam, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, 
gravel. 

The list omits peat and other organic matter. If humus 
is present in these they are usually of a dark color or black. 
Lime also darkens the color of soils in presence of vegetable 
matter. Otherwise the color will vary a great deal. 



58 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ExER-ciSE. — To Show Kinds of Soil and Subsoil. — Have 
pupils bring to school in small boxes or tin cans samples of 
different kinds of soil and subsoil of the neighborhood 
(Fig. 33). The pupils should classify and name these. 
Much benefit may come by discussing the relative value 
of these types of soil and subsoil. 

REVIEW. 

1. Name as many different kinds of soil as you can. 

2. How many of these have you seen? Where? 

?. What kind of rock forms sand when crumbled ? 

4. In what ways is clay soil better than sandy soil ? 

5. In what ways is sandy soil better than clay soil ? 

6. Name several ways in which lime or limy substances are help- 
ful to soil. 

7. Whivt is humus? 

8. How does humus improve sandy soil? How does it improve 
clay soil ? 

9. Describe a good farm soil. 

10. How may the subsoil differ from the surface soil ? 

References. — Physical Geographies will be helpful in the further 
study of the topics taken up in the chapters on Soils. Let the most 
advanced pupils in the class read the chapters on soil movement in a 
good Physical Geography and report to the class. 



CHAPTER VI. 
SOIL MOISTURE. 



Water in Soils. — Many soils contain too much or too 
little water. The water in soils may be in three conditions: 
(a) Free water, or that which would flow into a hole dug for 
a post or telephone pole. (6) Capillary water, or that which 
tends to fill the small spaces between fine particles of soil, 
as the oil of a lamp fills the spaces in the wick above the free 
oil in the lamp. This is called also coarse film or simply film 
moisture, (c) Fine film water, or that which clings to the 
surface of each small bit of soil even when it is as dry as road 
dust. This is called also hygroscopic moisture. If too much 



SOIL MOISTURE 59 

water is present, proper drainage may help; if too little, by 
adding water or by adding vegetable matter and barn manure, 
to aid the soil in retaining water, the crops will be improved. 
Soils with good texture are seldom too wet or too dry. The 
average rainfall of a certain region may be enough, but the 
best growth is impossible if the rain is not well distributed 
through the growing season. 

Exercise. — Three Conditions of Water in Soils. — Fill 
a glass jar or drinking glass with some fine sand or other 
loose soil and pour in water until half full of free water. 
Above the free water the soil wi 11 become wet with capillary 
water. By stirring the top soil it will become dust like or 
some dust may be spread on to p. The dust, though perfectly 
dry in appearance, is supplied with fine film water. 

Just after heavy rainfalls the free water is close to the 
surface, and falls lower at drier times. 

Capillary Moisture. — Capillary water clings to the sur- 
faces of the soil particles and cannot be seen as free water can. 
When a soil has all the capillary water it will hold, its presence 
can be felt with the fingers. The color is darker than the 
same soil when dried in the air. 

Take a pound of soil fresh from the garden and spread it 
out on a paper to dry. The next day weigh it and determine 
how much capillary moisture it has lost. 

Fine Film or Hygroscopic Moisture. — Dry dust from a 
road contains a very fine film of moisture on each soil grain. 
This is too fine to be seen. Put some road dust in the bottom 
of a glass tube or vial and heat it gently. Moisture will be 
seen collecting in the top of the tube. This was held in the 
form of fine films on the soil grains before they were heated. 

Capillary Moisture Most Useful. — The roots of plants 
take up capillary moisture. This in turn is supplied from 
the bed of free water deeper in the soil. Farm crops cannot 
make direct use of free water. Plants need air in the soil 
about the roots. Free water would exclude the soil-air, and 



60 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

also prevent the rise of temperature. Fine film moisture 
probably does not aid plants in their growth, but will help 
to maintain life at the time of great drought. Slow-growing 
plants, such as those found in deserts, may be kept alive by 
the presence of fine film moisture. 

Soil Moisture Used by Plants. — Plants use moisture 
while growing. One ton of a dry corn crop may use up 300 
to 600 tons of soil moisture during its growth. The moisture 
while in the soil dissolves plant-food which it finds there. 
The plants take up this food in the water they drink through 
the roots. This all passes up to the leaves of the plant and 
the surplus water is lost by evaporation into the air. 

How Capillary Moisture Moves. — When grains of soil 
are wet with capillary moisture, each grain is covered all 
over with a thin layer of water. Deep down in the soil near 
where the free water is found the layers of water around the 
grains are quite thick. Higher up, the films are less thick. 
The films about the grains are as thin as the films of soap 
bubbles. The grains next to the air become as dry as the 
air itself. 

But the moisture is constantly moving from the lower 
depths toward the surface. The power by which this move- 
ment takes place is called capillary action. It is in the same 
way that oil will rise in the wick of a lamp. 

The moisture moves upward in fine-grained soils such as 
clay more readily than in coarse sand. The openings be- 
tween soil grains are called pore spaces. If these are rather 
large the capillary movement of water is slow. Packing the 
soil grains closer together, as with a roller, will greatly in- 
crease the rise of water in the soil. This is often done when 
small grain or grass seeds are sown, to hasten the sprouting 
of the seeds. 

Water Holding Power of Soils. — One hundred pounds of 
each of the following soils, when saturated, held the following 
amounts of water in capillary form: 



SOIL MOISTURE 



61 



Sand held 25 pounds moisture 

Heavy clay held 50 pounds moisture 

Cultivated loam held 52 pounds moisture 

Black garden loam held 81 pounds moisture 

Humus held 190 pounds moisture 

Exercise. — Absorbing Rainfall. — Arrange an apparatus 
as shown in Fig. 34. Use gravel, sand, loam, clay, and peat, 
or other soils of the region. Pour water on all of these, 
keeping the soil covered. With watch or clock note time 
required in each case for the water to begin dripping through 




Fig. 34. — Apparatus to show the rate of taking in rain water by five different 
soils. Cloth tied around the mouth of the bottles prevents the soil fronx washing 
through. (Agricultural Education.) 



into the glass below. Which kind of soil will take in rainfall 
most rapidly? Which has the closest texture? What 
becomes of most of the rain water falling on a compact soil 
during a heavy rain? 

Exercise. — To Illustrate Capillarity. — Place one end of 
an old loose cloth in a cup of water and leave the other end 
outside. In a short time the whole cloth may become wet 
by capillarity. The water moves along in the fine meshes 
of cloth. Oil is drawn up in a lamp through the wick by the 
force of capillarity. 



63 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Exercise. — To Show Capillarity in Soils. — Tie cloth 
over the large ends of lamp chimneys and fill with different 
kinds of dry soils, as shown in Fig. 35. Set them in a dish 
of water. The water will rise in the soils by capillarity. It 
will rise much higher in the finer soils such as clay and loam. 
Moisture rises quickly but not so high in coarse land. 

Increasing Soil Moisture. — Since humus holds so much 
capillary water, the farmer has one sure way to increase the 
water-holding power of any soil. The addition of green 
manure and barn manure will cause humus to form in the 
soil. Large quantities of humus will hold more moisture in 




Fig. 35. — ^Water rises more rapidly by capillarity through fine soils 
than in coarse soil. 



the capillary form and thus encourage the growth of larger 
crops. Deep plowing will increase the depth of the water 
reservoir. Harrowing and cultivating will help, because 
the more a soil is stirred the less water it will lose by evapo- 
ration. Furthermore, rains sink into a loose surface better 
than into a hard compact one. Underdrainage of soils will 
increase this power to hold capillary moisture, because the 
volume of soil above the free water level is made greater. 

How to Save Soil Moisture. — Spaces between soil grains 
serve as very crooked small tubes to conduct the lower soil 
water toward the surface. Harrowing and cultivating the 



SOIL MOISTURE 



63 



surface of the soil will break the connection of the spaces or 
pores with each other. If this capillary connection is broken 
near the surface the moisture will be checked in its upward 
movement and be held near the roots. 

The covering of fine soil produced by a harrow or culti- 
vator is called a dust rnulch or fine soil mulch (Figs. 36a and b). 
The chief purpose of the dust mulch is to save moisture. As 
growing plants use a very large amount of water, it is wise 
for the farmer to keep a fine soil mulch on the fields all the 




Fig. 36a— a ten-shovel sulky cultivator. This form of machine leaves a fine 
soil surface which helps to save moisture. 

Fig. 36b. — A one-horse walking cultivator with many small shovels and a smooth 
rake behind. The fine soil mulch produced is the best means of preventing evapora- 
tion of the moisture. 

growing season. If the tubes and pores through which the 
water passes are undisturbed the water will escape rapidly 
into the air. If, on the other hand, these tubes are broken 
by tillage, evaporation is checked. , 

Exercise. — Effect of Mulch. — When the ground is dry 
place an old cloth or carpet or a bunch of hay on the ground. 
In a day or so the ground under this mulch will become 
moist by drawing water up from beneath, while the ground 
around the mulch may remain quite drj'. A covering of 



64 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

fine soil made with a rake, called a dust mulch, will have 
the same effect in keeping garden soils moist during dry 




Fig. 37. — Spike-toothed harrow, producing a dust mulch in a peach orchard. 

(Experiment Station, N. J.) 

weather. A dust mulch can be made with a fine-toothed 
harrow or weeder over a large field very rapidly (Fig. 37). 

REVIEW. 

1. Name the three forms of water in soils. 

2. Which form is most useful to growing plants? 

3. How can we determine the amount of capillary water in a soil 
sample? 

4. How does free water in soil help the farmer? 

5. Under what circumstances is the free water harmful? 

6. What becomes of the moisture taken up by a growing crop? 

7. Describe the movement of capillary moisture in soils? 

8. What are pore spaces in soils? 

9. What kinds of soil have the largest pores? 

10. In what soils is the capillary movement of moisture most rapid? 
What is the effect of rolling the loose soils? 

11. What soils hold the most capillary moisture? 

12. What kind holds the least? 

13. Suppose humus soil and sandy soil were mixed, what would be 
the effect on their moisture-holding powers? 

14. What is a dust mulch? How made? 

15. What is the effect of a dust mulch? 

Reference.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 266, Management of Soila 
to Conserve Moisture. 



LAND DRAINAGE 65 

CHAPTER VII. 
LAND DRAINAGE. 

All good farm land should be well drained. In some 
cases it is naturall}^ drained because of the loose or open 
character of the subsoil. In other places we find the sur- 
face so sloping that much of the rainfall is carried away on 
the surface or near the surface. There are special cases 
where some form of artificial drain should be used. 

What Drainage Does. — In soils where water stands too 
close to the surface, drainage will help in several ways. We, 
therefore, use draining ditches or drain pipes for the 
following reasons: 

1. To remove surplus water. 

2. To admit air to soil and roots. 

3. To deepen feeding area for roots. 

4. To reduce suffering at time of drought. 

5. To aid tillage. 

6. To increase chemical action. 

7. To raise the soil temperature. 

Soil which has been well drained is improved, not only 
by the removal of water from it, but because the more rapid 
passage of water through the soil carries the air and warmth 
to lower levels, which are important factors in making plant- 
food soluble, and thus increasing the power of plants to 
secure food. 

On too many farms we find half-developed crops grown 
year after year upon land which would be able to yield 
large returns if properly drained. 

Methods of Drainage. — There are two general methods of 
draining land : first, by open ditches, which may have either 
straight banks or sloping banks; second, by underdrains or 
5 



66 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

covered drains, which may be composed either of tile (Fig. 
38) or of broken stone, gravel, boulders, etc. Surface or 
open ditches are cheaper to start with, but are not so good 
as others. They do not give as good results, and are in 
the way. 

Effect on Roots. — Deep drainage increases the room for 
plant-roots. The roots of most farm crops will not grow 
down into any free water which may be standing in the sub- 
soil. If drains carry away such water the roots may go into 
the deeper soil to get plant-food (Fig. 39, D). 




Fig. 38. — Ready to lay the six-inch drain tiles. 

This reduces suffering at time of drought, because the 
roots are then so deep in the soil that the drying of the 
surface does not harm them. They get their moisture from 
lower depths and from a larger volume of soil. 

On the other hand, if the free water is allowed to remain 
near the surface during the spring of the year (Fig. 39, F), 
very shallow root systems are formed. Later, in July, when 
a drought comes, the free water settles to a great depth too 
quickly for the roots to follow. The shallow roots are then 
surrounded by the dry soil near the surface and growth is 
stopped (Fig. 39, W). 



LAND DRAINAGE 



67 



How Drainage Warms the Soil. — Drainage lowers the 
water in soils. As the water goes downward, the air from 
above is drawn into the soil. In warm weather the air will 
thus warm the soil, increase chemical action, and aid in the 
gro\\'th of soil bacteria. Plant growth is thus hastened. 

Drains Ventilate the Soil. — This not only warms the soil 
but also gives it the necessary oxygen and removes the 
harmful gases. 




_L 




Fig. 39. — Drainage deepens the feeding area for roots and reduces the suffer. 
iiig at time of drought. The view at the left shows free water just under the roots. 
When drought comes the roots are left so near the surface as to let them dry very 
badly. See centre view. The view at the right shows the deep root system 
allowed by tile-drainage. 



Where Drainage is Needed. — There are several kinds 
of places where it would be wise to put in artificial drains 
of some kind: — 

1. Flat lands which are too wet because of the overflow 
of streams at time of heavy floods. 

2. Bogs and marsh lands which hold the free water too 
near the surface most of the summer season. 

3. Large, flat areas having clay subsoils. 

4. Depressions in hillsides which hold the water coming 
from the land above. 

5. Fields which are to be flooded at certain times for 
special crops, such as rice and cranberries. 

Principles of Underdrainage. — The value of under- 
drains depends upon the free passage of water through them. 



68 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



They should always lead to the lowest portion of the field. 
They must be gradually sloped to secure an even flow of 
water in them. A fall of two feet in one thousand will be 
enough for the flow of water if the tile pipes are laid care- 
fully. The main drain should always occupy the lowest 
part of the field, and the others may lead the water to the 



mam. 




Fig. 40. — Laying drain tiles and testing tlie depth by measurement from level 

grade stakes. 



The distance of drains from each other and the depth 
below the surface are governed by the character of the land. 
On light, open soils, they should be deeper and farther apart ; 
on heavy land they should be nearer to the surface and closer 
together. The mouth of the drain should be well protected, 
and kept free and open. 

Drain Tile.— The best underdrains are made by laying 
drain tile pipes in the bottom of the ditches. These are 
then covered with soil. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 69 

The tile pipes should be very strong and hard, so they 
will not rot in the soil. They should be smooth inside to 
avoid clogging. The ends should be clean cut so they will 
fit together closely. A very common length for each piece 
is twelve inches, but sometimes they are longer than this. 

The joints are open but are usually covered with sods, 
rocks, broken tile or other material to help keep out the fine 
soil. Sections of drain pipe are placed as close together as 
possible and the openings are very small (Fig. 40). 

Water enters drain-pipes at the joints. The pipes carry 
away only the free water and the capillary moisture is left 
in the soil for the use of plants. If the pipes should lead 
through a drier soil, the water would there flow from the 
pipes into the soil. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give several ways in which drainage may help the soil. 

2. Give two methods of draining land. 

3. How does drainage warm the soil in the spring? 

4. How does drainage reduce suffering at time of drought? 

5. Give five kinds of places where drainage is needed. 

6. Give several points to be observed in making underdrains. 

7. What does distance between lines of tile depend upon? 

8. What things help to determine the depth at which to lay drain 
tiles? 

9. Describe good drain tiles. 

10. How does water enter a line of tile? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 158, How to Build Small 
Irrigation Ditches; 187, Drainage of Farm Lands; 263, Practical Infor- 
mation for Beginners in Irrigation; 373, Irrigation of Alfalfa; 399, Irriga- 
tion of Grain; 404, Irrigation of Orchards. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT. 



The farmer should do what he can to improve soils, as 
natural causes work too slowly. The depletion of a poor 
soil may be due to the natural causes. Fields that are on 
hillsides may be badly washed and gullied by running water 



70 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



from rains. Such bad effects can usually be remedied by the 
application of practical methods. The aim should be to 
bring the soil into suitable condition for the production of 
large crops. 

Kinds of Improvement.— The improvement may be in 
several regards: 

1. In its physical condition. 

2. In its chemical make-up and food-yielding power. 

3. In its moisture-holding power. 

4. In its germ life or bacteria. 




^ 



¥ir,. 41. — PldwiiiK un<ler a crop of green manure to add humus to the soil. 



Tillage is one of the commonest ways to put soil in proper 
physical condition to yield good crops. There are two main 
types of tillage: Deep tillage, as with a plow (Fig. 41), and 
shallow tillage, as with harrows and cultivators (Figs. 37 
and 42). 

Objects of Plowing. — The primary object of plowing a 
field is to make a good seed bed by crumbling the soil and 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 



71 



making it fine. As the furrow slice slides along the curved 
surface of a polished mouldboard, the particles are caused to 
slide upon each other. Take the leaves of a book between 
your thumb and finger when the edges are nearly even. 
Bend them, and see that they all slide a little and the edges 
are no longer even. Thus, in plowing, the particles of soil 
tend to slide upon each other 
and the crumbling is accom- 
phshed. Other objects of 
plowing include: 

1. The covering of wild 
plants and burying of stub- 
ble, stalks, vines, and other 
wastes. 

2. The unlocking of plant- 
food in the soil by exposing 
the particles to new condi- 
tions of heat, light, moisture, 
and air. 

3. The deepening of the 
water reservoir and making 
the moisture conditions more 
perfect. 

4. Loosening of the soil to 
allow of better shallow tillage. 

Plowing not only pulverizes and loosens the soil; it may 
also warm and dry wet soil; it may deepen the surface soil 
and increase the feeding area for roots; it admits air and 
increases the weathering; it deepens the water reservoir. 

PIows.^ — Walking plows are best for rough and stony 
fields. Riding plows have wheels, and are called sulky 
plows. These are much more common in sections where 
the fields are large, level, and free from stones and stumps. 

Gang plows are those which have two or more plows 
attached to the same frame and turn several furrows at a 




Fi<;. 42. — Cultivating young peach 
trees. Frequent tillage makes the soil 
yield its fertility to growing plants. 
(Experiment Station, N.J.) 



72 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

time (Fig. 43). The two-plow gang is usually drawn by- 
horse power, but larger gangs are frequently drawn by steam 
or gasoline traction engines. 

Forms of Mouldboards. — Plows have three main forms 
of mouldboards, suited to the different purposes of the farm. 

The mouldboard for turning over sod is long from the 
front point to the rear, is very oblique, and has a very slight 
curve. The rear of the mouldboard turns the slice more 
nearly upside down than the other forms. 

The mouldboard for stubble ground is extremely different 
from that of the sod plow, being very short, steep, and much 
curved. It bends the furrow slice abruptly and causes it 
to crumble, leaving it somewhat on edge. 




Fig. 43. — Modern gang plow, turning two furrows at a time. 

The general purpose mouldboard is medium in form 
between the other two extremes, and is useful where much 
litter and manure are to be plowed under. 

Fall Plowing. — When a field is plowed in the fall it gives 
more time for the rotting of barnyard manure and other 
forms of vegetable matter turned under by the plow. The 
farmer usually has more time in the fall, and the plows may 
be kept going until the soil is frozen. Heavy soils plowed in 
the fall are greatly improved and made mellow by alternate 
freezing and thawing during winter. Many forms of inju- 
rious insects are destroyed in the upturned soil during the 
winter. The moisture conditions are better and the crops 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 73 

will suffer less from drought than if the soil were not plowed 
until late spring. 

There is one strong argument against late fall plowing: 
It prevents the growth of a winter cover crop on the field. 
The very light soils are greatly benefited by winter cover 
crops. In regions where the climate is dry, winter cover 
crops are used to prevent the blowing of soils. In hilly 
regions where heavy winter rains are common, cover crops 
are necessary to prevent washing or erosion. 

Depth of Plowing. — For most crops deep plowing gives 
better results than shallow plowing. A very good general 
rule for humid climates would be to always plow" the soil 
as deep as the dark surface soil, being careful to not bring 
too much of the subsoil to the surface. When vegetable 
matter is plowed under each year, the plowing can extend 
to a greater depth each time. 

Shallow tillage includes the cultivating and harrowing of 
soils. There are several objects in view — the preparation 
of a seed bed, the killing of weeds, and the saving of moisture. 
(Figs. 36a and h, 37 and 42.) 

Preventing Weeds. — Before crops are planted in the 
spring, the soil should be so frequently tilled as to prevent 
the starting of weeds; that is, to kill the little sprouts before 
they show above ground. On fields of corn, potatoes, cotton, 
and other crops in rows, the tillage should also be very 
frequent and shallow— thus killing the little sprouts of weeds 
and checking the loss of soil moisture. If weeds are allowed 
to grow they take from the soil quite as much plant-food and 
moisture as the cultivated plants. 

Green Crops as Manures. — Crops are frequently grown 
with the intention of turning them under before they become 
mature. Such are called green manures. They add vegetable 
matter to the soil in a form to decay quickly. This produces 
humus and liberates considerable plant-food in a form ready 
for crops to use. Both physical and chemical benefits thus 



74 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

arise from the use of green manures. Red and crimson 
clover, cow peas, vetch, rye, and buckwheat are commonly- 
used as green manures, but any other crops may be grown 
for this purpose. Those plants which belong to the legume, 
or clover, family are among the best for this purpose, because 
they gather nitrogen from the air and leave it available for 
the use of other crops. The benefits of this family of plants 
will be discussed more fully in the chapters on Farm Crops 
and Alfalfa. 

Benefits Enumerated. — By the careful use of green 
manures, soils may be benefited in several ways: 

1. Food is brought from great depths by the roots and 
when turned under is left near the surface. 

2. Such food is left in a form suitable for other plants 
to easily make use of it, because the green manure will decay 
quickly. 

3. The decaying matter becomes humus and has many 
beneficial effects, already studied. 

4. Chemical action in the soil is promoted. 

5. Small organisms, bacteria helpful to the soil, are 
multiplied more rapidly. 

Planning for Green Manures. — It requires some planning 
ahead to be most successful in securing crops suitable as 
green manures. Certain crops, such as rye and crimson 
clover, may be sown in the late summer or fall after the 
season's crop is ofT. These may be plowed under in the spring 
as green manure before the next season's crop is put in. Cow 
peas or buckwheat may be used to produce a good heavy 
green manure crop by letting it use the last half of the 
summer after a crop of small grain has been removed from 
the field. 

Care in Their Use. — When too heavy crops of rye or 
clover are plowed under at one time, there are apt to be bad 
results. This is chiefly due to the formation of acids in the 
soil which make it sour. Such bad effects are not noticed 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 75 

when there is plenty of lime in the soil. Lime should be 
applied to the soil when heavy crops are plowed under. 
Heavy applications of green manure also have a drying 
effect upon the soil, and there may then be more suffering 
at time of drought. 

Benefits of Lime. — In another chapter the character of 
limestone soils was discussed. (Pages 53-54.) It is a good 
practice to spread lime on soils for certain crops just as 
fertilizer is applied. The benefits derived from the addition 
of lime to soils are here enumerated : 

It aids decay of vegetable matter. 

It helps liberate plant-foods in the soils. 

It hastens the growth of bacteria in the soil. 

The heavy clay soils are made more open, porous, and 
more easily tilled; moisture and air move more freely; the 
soil will then become warmer in early spring. 

The light sandy soils are made more compact, and hold 
moisture better. 

Lime acts upon acids in soils and destroys the sourness; 
this is a benefit for nearly all farm crops. 

It is a direct plant-food for alfalfa and some other mem- 
bers of the clover family. 

Exercise. — Slaking Lime. — Expose a small lump of 
burned lime, called quick-lime, on a board or paper, for a 
day or more until it crumbles to powder. This powder is 
then called air-slaked lime. A second lump of quick-lime 
may be placed in a dish and wet with a very little water 
from time to time until it heats and crumbles. When burned 
lime is used on soil, it should be air-slaked before spreading. 
A little water added to it will hasten the slaking. 

Exercise. — To Study Lime-water. — Slake some fresh 
lime the size of a baseball by pouring water over it very 
slowly until it crumbles. Then cover it well with water 
and stir. After it is allowed to settle, pour off. the clear 
water Put in a strip of red litmus paper and note the result. 



76 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Put in a strip of blue litmus paper and see the result. Why 
is it not affected? Draw off a glassful of the lime-water 
and, after taking a deep breath and holding it for awhile, 
force the air from the lungs into it through a straw or tube. 
The milky color resulting shows that there is a union of the 
lime-water with the carbon dioxide in the breath, and a new 
substance is formed. If some of the clear lime-water is left 
open to the air for some time, a white crust will be formed 
on the top of it in the same way. 

Exercise.- — To Show an Important Plant-food in Ashes. — 
Pour a few quarts of water into a pan of wood ashes and 
allow it to stand for fifteen minutes. Drain the water out 
through a loosely woven cloth. Examine the liquid to 
detect the lye or potash in it. It is soft and slippery to the 
touch. Place some red htmus paper in the liquid. It will 
turn blue. This is because the potash is what we call an 
alkali. 

Exercise. — Wood Ashes and Sour Soil. — Bog soils are 
often sour and show an acid reaction with litmus paper. 
Make some soil sour by wetting it with vinegar. See if it 
turns litmus paper red. Then wet it with "lye water" 
obtained by letting wood ashes stand in a vessel of water. 
Test with litmus paper. This time it should change to blue. 
Sour (or acid) soils may be made "sweet" or neutral by 
spreading wood ashes on them. Fresh or well-stored wood 
ashes contain both potash and Ume, which have several 
benefits besides correcting acidity of soils. 

Exercise. — Liine and Sour Soil. — Take a sample of sour 
soil which you have prepared as in the last exercise. Sweeten 
(or neutralize) it by the application of lime-water prepared 
by slaking lime in water. Lime is very helpful to bog soils 
and other soils too rich in humus. 

Barnyard Manure. — The use of barnyard manure on 
farm and. garden soils is one of the best ways of improving 
them. Its benefits are of several kinds. It is a direct food 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 77 

for plants because of the three fertilizing elements which 
it contains, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These 
are the three elements of plant-food of greatest value to 
plants. Another benefit is from the vegetable matter con- 
tained in the manure, which is a great source of humus. 
This helps to put the soil into better physical condition and 
makes a better home for soil bacteria. The decay of the 
vegetable matter sets up certain chemical changes which 
are of benefit to the soils and crops. 

Value of Manure. — The value of barnyard manure 
depends on several conditions : 

The age and kind of animals. 

The kind and amount of feed they eat. 

The amount and kind of litter or bedding used. 

The care of the manure after it is made. 

The age of the manure. 

When compared with the market prices of commercial 
fertilizers the average value of manure from the barn of a 
horse or mule in a year is estimated at $27; a cow, $19; 
a hog, $12; a sheep, $2. To get these values the manure 
must be used to the best advantage. 

When equal weights of manure are considered the values 
from the different kinds of farm stock would usually be in 
this order: Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows. 

Loss in Manures. — Manures are liable to lose their value 
during storage from two direct causes: 

First, heating, when left in heaps in the barnyard or in 
the field. This results in the loss of nitrogen. Manure must 
not be allowed to get hot from its owa fermentation. 

Second, leaching, when left where water can wash it. 
This may take away much of the valuable plant-food. When 
manure is allowed to leach the most valuable parts are lost 
first. 

Extremes in moisture and temperature should not be 
allowed if manure is to be saved. There is very little loss 



78 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



if the heap is kept wet enough to prevent heating, and kept 
dry enough to prevent water from passing through it. 

Under the average conditions where manure is allowed 
to stand in the barnyard for three months or more, the loss 
is from one-third to one-half of the plant-food in it (Fig. 44). 

Care of Manures. — A good way to save manure is to 
store it under cover — sheltered from rain and direct sunshine. 

There is less heating of manure when it is packed very 
hard, because the air is kept away. One plan of keeping 
it well packed is to have a shed or covered barnyard with a 




Via. 44. — A poor way to store barnyard manure, even when the ground is level. 
The barn is badly rotted by this method. (Animal Industry.) 

cement floor, on which the manure from the barn is spread 
daily. Stock are allowed to tramp this down all winter, and 
it is hauled to the fields in the spring. 

Spreading Directly on Fields. — Barnyard manure is used 
to the best advantage when it is spread directly on the fields 
regularly, every day or every week. In northern and central 
states where many animals are stabled during the winter, 
a large amount of manure is allowed to pile up about the 
buildings and waste rapidly. It should be spread on the fields, 
where it is to be used, as fast as it is made (Figs. 45 and 46). 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 



79 



This saves the manure best. Labor is cheaper in winter; 
snows may allow the use of sleds for hauling; the least amount 
of labor is required in placing the manure from the stalls 
on a sled or wagon to be taken to the field. The manure 
should be spread when carried to the field, and not left in 
heaps to leach. 

The practice followed in some sections of putting the 
manure in piles in the field should be stopped. That is an 
old-fashioned way which requires more labor. It makes the 
grain or other crop uneven in growth and uneven in ripening. 
It does not make the best use of the plant-food in the manure. 

r ■ 




Fig. 45. — The modern manure spreader in the barnyard. A litter carrier which 
runs on an overhead track is used to take the manure from the barn. The figure 
shows the carrier in position of emptying into the spreader-box The team is 
hitched on and the load is spread in a field as shown in another figure. 

Using Barnyard Manure. — Three points should be con- 
sidered in the use of barnyard manure. First, it is rich in 
nitrogen and has some of the other elements. Second, it is 
well supplied with bacteria which are very helpful to the 
soil. Third, it supplies the soil wiih humus. 

The manure of the farm should be spread on the highest 
parts of each field, because they are usually the poorest soils 
and some of the fertility naturally washes down toward the 
lower soils. 



80 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

A light dressing of manure on each field every year is 
better than very heavy applications less frequently. This is 
particularly true if the soils are light. Large applications 
of manure are saved better by heavy soils than by light soils. 

Fresh manure has a forcing effect on the crops. If large 
amounts of fresh manure be applied to light soils there is 
danger of the plants suffering from drought in dry seasons; 
the soil may be made too open and loose by too much fresh 
manure at one time. Soils containing much clay will not 
suffer from larger amounts of fresh manure. 



V- ^'"^^ 




Fig. 46. — A manure spreader at work. This maclune can be regulated to spread 
the manure thick or thin on the field. The spreader makes the best use of the manure, 
saves labor, and produces the most uniform crop. 

Some root crops, such as potatoes, may be injured by the 
use of fresh manure. Scab disease may become worse. On 
fields where such crops are to be grown a large amount of 
manure may be used one year before the root crop is planted. 

Composts. — For gardens, flower-beds, and greenhouses, 
it is sometimes a good thing to rot the manure before it is 
used. How to do this without wasting its plant-food is a 
problem which many farmers do not understand. The use 
of a compost heap serves the purpose very well. 

A good compost heap is made by spreading a layer of 
barnyard manure, then a layer of tough sods from a meadow, 
or a layer of leaves, on each of these two layers is sprinkled 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 81 

some lime or wood ashes. The layers are repeated until 
the manure is all in the compost. The moisture from rains 
prevents the compost heap from rotting too fast and becom- 
ing too hot. The sod layers save much of the plant-food 
which would otherwise leach out. 

Rotting manure in a compost heap will kill the weed 
seeds; it will reduce the bulk of the manure; it helps to unlock 
the plant-food in the manure; it destroys the injurious effect 
which fresh manure has on such crops as potatoes. Whether 
to make such a compost of the manure will be determined 
by the uses for which it is intended. 

Feeding Plants. — Those forms of plant-food which con- 
tain nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, or lime are considered 
most precious on any farm. Soils are apt to become weak 
in these foods. Many such compounds readily dissolve in 
water and are lost from the soil at times of heavy rain by 
leaching or washing away. They may be absent from other 
causes. There are few if any other plant-foods which need 
cause the farmer much concern. The others are usually 
abundant enough. 

Commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen or phosphoric 
acid or potash — or all three of these — are purchased in great 
abundance in the Eastern and Southern States and for special 
crops elsewhere. These are applied to the soils for the 
direct feeding of crops. It is estimated that over eight mil- 
lion tons of such fertilizers are used in the United States 
each year. These cost the farmers over two hundred milhon 
dollars. As a rule they have no beneficial effect in improving 
the soil itself, as do the barnyard and the green manures. 
A commercial fertilizer is valuable in proportion to the 
amount and kind of these three plant-foods contained in it. 

Nitrogen is the most important element of such fertil- 
izers, because soils are more often in need of it and it is the 
most costly. When it is in a soluble form for plants to use, 
it is apt to be lost from many kinds of soils, unless cover 
6 



82 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

crops are used. There are several sources of the nitrogen 
purchased for fertilizers. Nitrogen is derived from animal 
or vegetable matter as in meat scraps, dried blood, and 
cottonseed meal. It is also abundant in sulphate of ammonia 
and nitrate of soda purchased by fertilizer manufacturers. 

In the nitrate form it is more quickly useful to the crops, 
and should be applied to the soil after the plants have started 
growth. Some of the other forms in which nitrogen is used 
are very slow in changing to forms available to plants; some 
of these are hair, leather scraps, garbage tankage, and others. 
It is very important for the farmer to know the source of 
the nitrogen in the fertilizer he is buying. For this reason 
it is becoming a common practice in some sections for farm- 
ers to buy the fertilizer materials separately and mix them 
on the farm. 

Phosphoric acid is contained in substances in combina- 
tion with lime and other materials. Such combinations 
are called phosphates. Ground bone is one of the chief 
sources of phosphoric acid in fertilizers. If this is ground 
very fine it will rot gradually and liberate food useful to 
growing crops. Animal bone contains on an average four 
per cent of nitrogen and twenty per cent of phosphoric 
acid. 

Bone tankage is a by-product from slaughter-houses, 
made up of various wastes that have been thrown in a tank 
and the grease extracted. Its value varies considerably 
according to the amount of meat or of bone in it. 

Phosphate rock has been obtained some time from a 
number of deposits in South Carolina, Florida, and Tennes- 
see. Recent discoveries of it have been made in Utah, 
Idaho, and Wyoming. 

The rock is used in two ways: (1) It is ground very fine 
and applied to soils, yielding its phosphoric acid to plants 
very gradually. This form is sometimes called floats. (2) 
The ground phosphate rock is treated with sulphuric acid 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 83 

before it is used on the soil. This makes the phosphoric 
acid more quickly available for the use of growing plants. 
In this form it is called superphosphate, or acid phosphate, 
which is a soluble phosphate; this may contain from 
fourteen to twenty per cent of phosphoric acid. Super- 
phosphates may also be made from bone and bone tankage. 

Exercise. — To Study Phosphorus. — Roll the head of a 
match between the moistened fingers. The white fumes are 
caused by the phosphorus in the match uniting with the 
oxygen in the air. They are called phosphoric acid. This 
is a form of the plant-food we have been studying. 

Potash is the third essential element in commercial fertil- 
izers, and is not so generally required. It is often needed 
on soils that have been farmed for a long time and also on 
sandy soils and peaty soils. It is derived from wood ashes 
to a limited extent. The largest source is in the form of 
mineral salts from the Stassfurt Mines of Germany. The 
chief names given to these salts are car-nall-ite, kain-it, 
and syl-vin-it. These may be ground fine and used on the 
soil; but they are more commonly refined or ' concentrated 
before being shipped to this country. The two concentrated 
forms of potash salts are the (1) muriate of potash, contain- 
ing fifty per cent of actual potash, and (2) the sulphate of 
potash, containing forty-eight per cent of actual potash. 
In all of the forms potash is soluble in water, and is easily 
absorbed by plants. 

Value of Fertilizers. — In Ijuying commercial fertilizers 
the purchaser should rememl)er that the agricultural value 
is based not upon the brand but more upon kind and form 
of the elements and upon their proportion in the mixture. 
Many farmers are inclined to buy fertilizers that have a 
low price per ton. These are invariably more expensive 
sources of plant-food elements than those more highly con- 
centrated, because of the necessity of diluting the mixtures 
with "make-weight" or low-grade materials. High-grade 



84 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



fertilizers, those that contain good forms of plant-food, 
cannot be made from cheap materials, and if they contain 
high percentages of the elements they cannot be sold for a 
low price (Fig. 47). The price per ton, whether high or low, 
is not a safe guide as to the effect that a fertilizer may have 
upon the crop production. This is measured by the kind 
and form of the materials used in the mixture. 

Exercise. — Dissolving Nitrate of Soda. — -Put one-half 
teaspoonful of nitrate of soda in a glass of water and stir 





Fig. 47. — The large square A represents a ton of low-grade fertilizer (for- 
mula 2% nitrogen, 8% phosphoric acid, 2% potash). The valuable part is represented 
by the dark square in the corner. The shaded area shows what is called filler, 
which does no good to the soil. 

The large square B represents a ton of high-grade fertilizer. The valuable 
part is what is shown by the white square in the corner. Some filler is always 
present. It is represented by shaded area. 



until dissolved. Plants must have their food in the soil 
dissolved before they can use it. Would this nitrate dissolve 
in the rain? 

Exercise. — Collection of Fertilizers. — Let the pupils aid 
the teacher in making a collection of all the different fertil- 
izers to be found at the dealers or which can be secured by 
mail. Put these in bottles with suitable labels. Keep them 
for future study. 

Exercise. — Solubility of Phosphates. — Put a very little 
phosphate rock which is ground fine in a glass of water 
and see if it will dissolve. Do the same with a little ground 
bone in another glass. Pour in a little clear lime-water. 
If there were any phosphate dissolved this would cause a 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 85 

white cloudy appearance. If bone and phosphate rock were 
in the soil, would they be dissolved by rain? 

Exercise.- — Dissolving Superphosphates. — Put a very 
little superphosphate (or acid phosphate) from a fertilizer 
sack in a glass of water and stir. Does any of it dissolve? 
Add a little clear lime-water. It should make a white cloudy 
appearance, showing that some of the material has dissolved. 
This would mean that plants could use this form of fer- 
tilizer. 

Problems. — 1. If nitrate of soda is 16 per cent nitrogen, 
how many pounds of nitrogen in a ton of it? 

2. If sulphate of ammonia is 20 per cent nitrogen, how 
much of it would be required to supply a 12-acre field with 
240 pounds of nitrogen? 

3. When available phosphoric acid is valued at 5 cents 
per pound, what should be the cost per ton of mineral super- 
phosphate which is 14 per cent available? What should it 
cost per ton if it is 20 per cent available? 

4. A shipment of sulphate of potash contained 48 per cent 
potash, which should sell at 5 cents per pound of potash. 
What will be the selling price per ton of^this fertilizer? 

REVIEW. 

1. Give four kinds of improvement for soils. 

2. Give two kinds of tillage and the implements used for each. 

3. Give all the objects of plowing. 

4. Describe the different forms of mouldboards and the special 
use of each form. 

5. What is a gang plow? 

6. Give several reasons for fall-plowing. 

7. Give a general rule governing the depth to plow. 

8. Describe a system of preventing weeds by shallow tillage. 

9. Give the benefits derived from green manures. 

10. What care should be exercised in the use of green manures? 

11. Give the effects of lime on light soils. On heavy soils. 

12. Give five other effects of lime. 

13. Give five things which influence the value of barnyard manure. 

14. What are the two main causes of loss in stored manures? How 
great is the loss usually? 

15. Describe two good ways of storing manure. 



86 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

16. By what plan is manure used to the best advantage? 

17. Describe the making of a compost. Of what use is it? 

18. What three important plant-foods are found in commercial 
fertilizers? Which is the most important? 

19. Name five or more substances from which nitrogen is derived. 

20. Give three sources of phosphoric acid. 

21. What are superphosphates? 

22. Give the sources of potash in commercial fertilizers. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 44, Commercial 
Fertilizers; 48, The Manuring of Cotton; 77, Liming of Soils; 192, 
Barnyard Manure; 245, Renovation of Worn-out Soils; 278, Leguminous 
Crops for Green Manuring; 286, Comparative Value of Whole Cotton 
Seed and Cotton-seed Meal in Fertilizing Cotton; 326, Building up a 
Run-down Cotton Plantation; 406, Soil Conservation. 



CHAPTER IX. 
SYSTEMS OF CROPPING. 

By rotation of crops is meant the succession of different 
crops, in contrast with the bad practice of having the same 
kind of crop grow year after year on the same field without 
any cover crop intervening. 

Special and General Farming. — In many of the Eastern 
States special farming is more profitable than general farm- 
ing. The raising of dairy produce, poultry products, hay, 
and seed-corn are some of the distinct lines of special farm- 
ing. In the South, cotton, cane, corn, and tobacco are 
among the special crops. In the Northwest and Middle 
West grain is the only crop on many farms. 

General farming is practised in nearly all parts of the 
country. In such cases it is found much easier to carry out 
good systems of rotation. 

Why We Rotate Crops. — There are a number of advan- 
tages gained when crops are raised in rotation. 

1. Some crops have deep roots; others shallow roots. 
The growth of a variety of crops on a certain field Avill pre- 
vent it from being exhausted so soon. 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 87 

2. Grain crops and many others take all their nitrogen 
from the soil; but leguminous crops, such as the clovers, 
peas and beans, gather much nitrogen from the air in the 
soil. Their growth will increase the store of nitrogen in the 
soil. A rotation of crops which includes the legumes will 
help to keep up the nitrogen supply in the soil. 

3. Crops put waste matter into the soil through their 
roots. This often acts as a poison to the kind of plants that 
put it there. It may not be a poison to other kinds of crops 
which follow in the rotation. 

4. Soils should be covered with growing crops as much of 
the time as possible. This guards against loss of soil by 
washing and leaching. It is possible to keep the soil thus 
protected if we have a rotation of crops; but it is usually 
not possible if but one crop is grown. 

5. Insect enemies and diseases of plants are liable to be 
worse when one crop is grown continuously. Rotation of 
crops is often a perfect remedy against these enemies. 

6. There is more continuous work for men and horses, 
because a rotation of crops distributes the labor throughout 
the season. Horses and men should be given steady employ- 
ment if possible. It is not profitable to keep horses idle too 
long at a time, as when only one crop is raised. 

7. Rotations always require a variety of soil treatment, 
as plowing the ground at different times of year. This is 
better than always following the same tillage at the same 
season of the year. We can best control the soil moisture 
by proper tillage at the right season. 

8. Rotation of crops helps to keep Aveeds in check. Many 
weeds which thrive in a hayfield will be kept down by a 
culture crop, as corn, cotton, or potatoes; while certain other 
weeds, which are bad in a cornfield, may be killed by growth 
of grain or grass. 

9. More sources of income are found on those farms where 
rotations are practised. There is also less danger of financial 



88 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

loss in seasons when certain crops are failures. The other 
crops grown on the fields of the farm may not fail. 

Chief Needs of Rotations. — The needs of rotation are 
fairly well understood by most farmers. There is greatest 
need when crops are suffering from particular weeds, bad 
insect pests or diseases, or when the soil is becoming exhaust- 
ed. However, rotation of crops should always be practised. 

Exercise. — One Benefit of Rotation of Crops. — Have 
students dig out a few plants of different kinds of crops, 
such as clover and timothy. They should study the root 
systems and compare the deep-feeding roots with the shallow- 
feeding ones. Shallow roots use the surface soil; deep roots, 
such as clover, will bring up food from the subsoil. This 
will help to make plain one value of rotation of crops. 

Bare Fallow. — It is now considered bad practice to allow 
ground to remain bare for any great length of time between 
one crop and the next. It is sometimes a good plan to do this 
for a few weeks providing the soil is kept pulverized on top 
by the use of a harrow once a week or soon after each rain. 
This practice of bare fallowing will cause the sprouting of 
weed seeds and the harrow teeth will kill the young sprouts. 
The soil moisture is also saved by the mulch of fine soil on 
top of the field. 

Catch Crops. — In place of fallowing has come the use of 
catch crops. In this method the ground is kept covered with 
a growing crop of some kind as much of the year as possible. 
For example, after a grain crop has been removed, a crop of 
cow peas, soy beans, millet, sorghum, or some other quick- 
growing crop is seeded. Crimson clover (Fig. 48) and winter 
vetch are often mixed with winter grain and sown in the 
cornfield in July, so they will be ready to occupy the field 
as soon as the corn crop is taken off. These three plants all 
live through the winter. This winter cover crop is also used 
after removing other crops such as early potatoes. 

How They Help the Farmer. — Catch crops or cover crops 
may be useful in several ways: 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 



89 



1. They help to hold soil from washing away by heavy 
rains. 

2. Their roots are helpful to unlock plant-food in the soil. 

3. When members of the clover family of plants, called 
legumes, are used, they gather nitrogen from the air and add 
it to the soil for future crops. 




Fig. 48. — Crimson (or scarlet) clover. This is a hardy legume, chiefly used as a 
winter cover crop. It is sown in fields of corn, cotton, or other crops and in orchards 
in July or August. It will improve the soil while growing until the following spring. 
It may then be cut for hay or may be plowed under for green manure. 



4. They check the growth of bad weeds. 

5. They furnish pasture, hay or other valuable stock feed. 

6. If plowed under as green manure, they produce humus 
in the soil, and quickly give to the soil the plant-food they 
have been using. 

7. When groA\ni among fruit trees and shrubs they check 
late growth of the trees and temper the effect of winter 
freezing. 



90 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Cover Crops in Orchards. — In young orchards winter 
rye is sown in early fall. This crop is turned under in spring 
and soy beans or cow peas are sown in June, to be turned 
under in time for sowing rye. These add humus and keep 
a cover on the orchard soil; the cow peas or soy beans add 
nitrogen, and much plant-food is unlocked by all of them for 
the young trees to use in their growth. 

A Few Rotations. — Examples of rotations with catch 
crops and cover crops may be of interest: 

1. Oats and common red clover may be sown in the 
early spring. When the crop of oats is harvested the clover 
will occupy the ground quickly. It forms a good cover on 
the field that winter, and will produce one or two cuttings of 
hay the next summer. The stubble may be plowed under 
for corn the following spring. In the cornfield in July we 
can sow a cover crop of crimson clover, winter vetch, and 
rye for a winter cover crop. This is to be plowed under the 
next spring as green manure. This three-year rotation is 
thus outlined: 

Oats; Red clover; Corn loith imnter cover crop. 

2. Early potatoes may be followed with a winter cover 
crop. This cover crop is plowed under in the spring and 
early potatoes again planted. This and the next are called 
one-year rotations. 

3. Corn is sometimes planted on a field year after year 
if a winter cover crop is put on each time. 

4. Winter wheat is sown in September, and the crop cut 
in July. After the stubble is plowed in, a good summer 
catch crop of cow peas or of soy beans may be grown in six, 
eight, or ten weeks. Then the catch crop may be harvested 
for hay or it may be plowed under as green manure. This 
is done in time to prepare the field for winter grain again. 

A Rotation for Dairy Farms. — A very good four-year rota- 
tion followed by a number of dairymen is about as follows; 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 91 

The farm has four fields, A, B, C, and D. This year, 

field A is seeded to oats and red clover with a little timothy 

and blue grass in it. After the oats are cut off the growth 

of clover comes on and may be pastured a little in September. 

Next year the clover will be cut twice for hay. The third 

year the field will be well filled with the grasses and some 

clover and the stock will use it all for pasture. This Avill be 

plowed for the next year's corn crop. Fields B, C, and D 

each follow the same rotation, but each is just a year behind 

the other, thus: 

A B 

1st year Grain and seeding Clover hay 

2d year Clover hay Pasture 

3d year Pasture Corn 

4th year Corn Grain and seeding 

C D 

1st year Pasture Corn 

2d year Corn Grain and seeding 

3d year Grain and seeding Clover hay 

4th year Clover hay Pasture 

Details of the Rotation.- — The four fields are each about 
the same size and the corn area may be reduced by using 
part of that field for the summer green-feed each time. In 
this four-year rotation system two of the fields are plowed 
and prepared for planting each year, one for spring grain 
and one for field corn. In case winter grain is used instead 
of spring grain, the corn is removed as soon as possible after 
cutting. 

Quick rotations give us better clover for the dairy herd 
than when the fields are kept in hay for several j'ears. It 
is better for the dairyman to produce hay that is all clover 
than it is to let the clover all disappear because the field is 
kept too many years in hay. Timothy hay or the "mixed" 
red-top and timothy are very poor milk producers. Clover 
is more than twice as valuable for milk cows. 

In this four-year rotation a small permanent pasture may 
be used also; but let it be well kept up and never used too 



92 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

long at a time. If the other four fields are fenced, the 
field that is growing up to timothy and blue grass will make 
the best pasture. 

During the winter and early spring the stable manure may 
be spread on the field that is to be plowed up next for corn. 

This rather rapid rotation of crops keeps up the fertility 
of the soil well. It allows the use of clover often on each 
field, and clover manure is one of the richest forms of manure 
for the soil. 

Pasturing a field one season in four is no small factor in 
keeping up its fertility; but some commercial fertilizer, in 
the form of acid phosphate and potash, may be used to supply 
the loss of mineral constituents. Some of this fertilizer may 
be applied when corn is planted and some when the grain 
is sown. Lime should be applied to the field where clover 
is to grow next. 

In all rotations where common red clover follows small 
grain, it is usually seeded in the growing grain in early spring 
or with the spring seeding of grain. 

An Alfalfa Rotation. — On dairy farms where alfalfa is 
extensively grown, some systematic rotation may be adopted. 
It is advisable to plow up the alfalfa field as soon as it becomes 
rather weedy. This gives a chance to take advantage of 
the fertility which it has been gathering for us. 

As soon as the June cutting has been taken off, the ground 
is quickly prepared for corn to be used for fodder. The 
next spring oat-and-pea mixture is sown, and as soon as the 
crop is off the stubble is turned under. The harrow is used 
once a week until the middle of August ; then lime is applied 
and alfalfa is seeded, using about thirty pounds to the acre. 
Inoculation at this time is unnecessary. We have thus 
taken from the field a crop of fodder corn and one of oats- 
and-peas, between two crops of alfalfa. 

Exercise. — Rotation Courses. — Let pupils report on the 
rotations followed at home or in the farming neighbor- 



SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 



93 



hoods where they are best acquainted. They may tell 
whether they could be improved or not. Some of them 
should be written on the blackboard and discussed as to the 
tillage required, effects on weeds, and other points. 





Fig. 49. — Oats and peas sown in early spring, ready to cut for use as green 
feed or for making hay by the middle of June. Corn may be grown on the same 
ground in the .•<ame season. Harvesting the oats and peas shown in the upper 
figure. The stubble may be plowed or disked and the field quickly planted to corn. 
(Experiment Station, N. J.) 

Succession Cropping. — This is the growing of one crop 
after another on the same land in the same season. For 
example, radish, lettuce, tomatoes. Let the pupils tell what 
plans of cropping they have seen in use either in gardens 



94 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

or in fields. This may arouse much valuable discussion. 
(Figs. 49, 50.) 

Companion Cropping. — This is a form of double cropping. 
What crops may be grown in fields together? Have you seen 




Fig. 50.— Com grown for forage after the spring crop of oats and peas shown ia 
Fig, 49. (.Experiment Station, N. J.) 

corn and squashes grown together? All the pupils should 
think over the crops that may grow together as companion 
crops. Early onions with late celery are an example in the 
garden. Early dwarf peas and tomatoes may be grown 
together. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give examples of special lines of farming in your section of the 
country. 

2. Give several reasons for the rotation of crops. 

3. Why do we want crojjs of the legume family in a rotation series? 

4. Can you tell how rotation of crops will help to keep down insect 
enemies and diseases of plants? 

5. Explain why you think the sixth advantage from rotation of 
crops is a good one. 

6. Name some weeds often found in hayfields or pastures which 
would not thrive in a cultivated cornfield. 

7. Give one benefit of a bare fallow. 

8. In what condition should soil be kept during a bare fallow period 
of a few weeks? 

9. Tell the difference between a bare fallow system and a catch 
crop system. 



FARM CROPS 95 

10. Give examples of summer catx^h crops. 

11. Give examples of plants used as winter cover crops. 

12. Give several uses of catch crops and cover crops. 

13. Should such crops be used in young orchards or in old ones? 

14. How do they benefit the soil and trees? 

15. Give an example of a three-year rotation of crops. 

16. Tell when each of these crops is planted and harvested. 

17. Give an example of a rotation system where potatoes are the 
special crop desired. 

18. Repeat the four-year rotation given in the book for dairy farms. 

19. Describe a good rotation where alfalfa is grown. 

20. What is succession cropping? Give examples. 

21. What is companion cropping? Give examples. 

References.— IT. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 318, Cow Peas; 337, Crop- 
ping Systems for New England Dairy Farms. 



CHAPTER X. 
FARM CROPS. 



Classification of Crops. — Field crops are those which are 
most commonly grown in fields; they are sometimes also 
g^o^vn in gardens. Those usually found in gardens only 
are called horticultural crops; these include all fruits and 
flowers and most vegetables. 

Crops of all kinds may also be classified according to the 
following six groups: 

1. Forage and Fiber Crops. — These include grasses, clo- 
vers, and alfalfa, used for green forage, for hay, or for pas- 
ture; and cotton, flax, and hemp, used for fiber. 

2. Cereal Crops. — The grains are called cereals. These 
include corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye and emmer. 

3. Tuber Crops.— White or Irish potatoes are true tubers; 
sweet potatoes are usually also classified with tubers, but 
strictly speaking they are believed to be roots. 

4. Root Crops include many that are used for stock feed, 
such as mangels, field beets, beets, turnips, carrots. 

5. Market-garden Crops. — Here we find cabbage, cauli- 
flower, celery, onions, lettuce, radish, table beets, melons, 
and many others. 



96 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

6, Fruit Crops. — These may be grouped as (a) stone 
fruits, such as peach, plum, and cherry; (&) pome fruits, 
such as apple, pear, and quince; (c) small fruits, such as 
strawberries, grapes, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and 
blackberries ; (d) citrus fruits, such as orange, lemon, pomelo 
or grape fruit, and lime fruit. 

7. Timber Crops, or products of the forest. 

FORAGE CROPS. 

The Soiling System. — One thing that the dairy farmer 
needs to keep in mind is the succession of green forage for 
use during the summer months when the weather is dry and 
the pastures are short. Crops grown to be cut and fed green 
to stock are called soiling crops. Such a system of feeding 
is called the soiling system. A better name would be the 
green-feed system. The soiling system used on any farm 
may be either (I) entire soiling, when green feed is provided 
for the whole season, or (2) partial soiling, where it is used 
in combination with pastures. 

The need for preparation in advance is very great on all 
dairy farms in this climate. The weather statistics show 
that we always have least rainfall in midsummer. There 
is certain to be enough drought each summer to cause a 
great shrinkage in the milk flow from herds fed on pastures. 

Just when the drought will come depends somewhat upon 
the locality and also the season. Frequently it is in July. 
Dairymen, however, prepare themselves to take care of the 
herd regardless of the dates when the dry weather comes. 

In a single county alone each summer there are thousands 
of dollars lost by the dairymen, due to the lack of green 
feed during the dry, hot days. In some localities the shrink- 
age of milk-flow is forty per cent in two weeks' time. In 
other cases the loss is about twenty-five per cent in the 
same time. Who is the loser at such a time? Is it the dairy 
farmer, or is it the buyer? Surely the farmer gets nothing 
for the milk which his cows fail to produce. He stands the 



FARM CROPS 97 

heaviest loss. Some cows of the herds run so low at the dry- 
pasture season that they cannot be brought back to their 
normal flow when the fall rains come. They are often carried 
into winter as mere strippers, at a dead loss to their owners. 

The farmer can lay out his fields and plan the seeding 
so as to have some green feed to give the cows at any time 
when the dry weather comes on. He cannot hope to have 
such green forage ready at any time it is needed for the cows 
unless he plans for it in advance. First, he should make a 
list of the crops which would suit his purposes and his other 
farm plans. Second, he should decide what areas of each of 
these crops will be needed for the number of cows in the 
herd, providing for plenty. If there is any left over it may 
be used for hay or fodder. 

Soiling Crops. — Here is a suggestive hst: Wheat or rye 
mixed with crimson clover or winter vetch, sown in the corn- 
field in July, to be cut when the grain begins to head out or 
when in full blossom. 

Oats and Canada field peas sown in early spring, to be cut 
as the peas begin to blossom. 

Spring vetch with oats or barley, sown at the same time 
as oats-and-peas or a little later. 

Crimson clover sown in corn in July or August, ready to 
cut in May. 

Red clover sown last season may be fed green in June 
if needed. 

Timothy and other grasses may be cut early and some 
fed green to the cows. 

Alfalfa, where gro^Mi, will furnish green feed from May 
to October. 

Millets sown in early June may be fed six or eight weeks 
later as green forage. 

Cow peas or soy beans so^vn in June or July will supply 
a long succession of green feed, at dates six to ten weeks from 
the seeding time. 
7 



98 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Flint corn, sweet corn, dent corn, and kaffir (Fig. 58), 
sown broadcast or drilled in rows, will begin to furnish feed 
as early as July 15th or August 1st. This will last until 
fall frosts come. 

After these soihng crops are gone the dairy farmer may 
use root crops, such as mangels, to furnish succulence for the 
dairy in late fall and early winter, if ensilage is not available. 

Oats and Peas. — The benefits derived from using this 
mixture as a crop each year on the farm are very great. As 
forage this mixture is very good because of the high content 
of protein. 

The ground should be plowed and harrowed early and 
the seed drilled in as early as the weather will permit. Do 
not be afraid of a little freezing weather afterward. Two 
bushels of Canada field peas and one bushel of oats will seed 
an acre. A bushel and a half of each may be used. 

For Green Feed. — Begin to cut the crop for green feed 
just as the first pea blossoms are showing. This first field 
will furnish green feed for the dairy herd for ten or fifteen 
days, depending on the weather. 

For a herd of twenty-five or thirty cows, it is well to 
allow two acres for each sowing of oats-and-peas, and make 
three sowings — one as soon as the soil can be worked; the 
next two weeks later; and the last about three weeks later 
than the second sowing. The yields should be ten or twelve 
tons of green feed per acre. 

A Good Hay. — The areas mentioned for each of these 
sowings may leave a little each time to be cured for hay. 
Those dairy feeders who are already familiar with the good 
feeding qualities of hay made from oats-and-peas will be 
sure to make the areas large enough to leave plenty of the 
crop to be cured for winter use. In cutting it for hay it 
must not be allowed to get too ripe. If the peas are hard 
the cows do not like them so well. The cured hay is nearly 
equal to good clover hay as winter roughage. 



FARM CROPS 99 

When farmers get a larger crop of hay from this mixture 
than they can from common grasses, they should not depend 
upon timothy and red top so much in dairy sections. Aside 
from the yield, we must remember also that the quality of 
the hay is much better than timothy, for it contains two or 
three times as much protein or milk-producing substance. 

There is always a greater yield of oats per acre because 
of the presence of the Canada peas. A field sown with three 
bushels per acre, half peas and half oats, will yield more oats 
than if the sowing were all oats. This is because the peas 
gather nitrogen for the two, getting it from the air. 

AQood Grain Mixture.— If the crop should be ripened and 
threshed, the grain may be all ground together. This pro- 
duces an excellent balanced grain ration for the dairy cow. 
Why should dairymen not produce more of their own grain 
at home in this very way? Oats alone seldom pay for the 
cost of raising them in the East, but when raised in this 
mixtm-e they will pay well, providing we have a mill near 
by where the grinding can be done. Swine and poultry thrive 
on this grain mixture. 

Forage for Midsummer. — The foregoing are chiefly very 
early crops. Other special crops may be grown which will 
be ready to feed to stock at a time near midsummer when 
pastures are apt to be too dry to give the stock enough feed. 
Some such crops were mentioned in the earlier part of this 
chapter. As we have already seen, this system of green 
feeding is called the soiling system. Now let us consider 
the matter of growing such forage crops as will be ready to 
feed green during the dry season. We can then combine the 
pasture system with the soiling system — called 'partial soiling. 

Corn for Green Forage. — Early sweet corn may be ready 
for July use. The ears may be used for market and the forage 
fed to stock. Early flint corn would come along just after 
it. Next the dent field corn would be fit to use. This would 
last until frost. 



100 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Several plantings of sweet and dent corn may be made 
through May and June, the later plantings being ready 
later. It is best to not use these early plantings of corn 
before they are in the roasting-ear or milk stage. In that 
condition corn has a good supply of nourishment, but it 
grows richer as it grows older. 




Fig. 51. — Black-hulled white kaffir, much grown in dry climates to use in place 
of corn. (Experiment Station, Kans.) 



Substitutes for Corn. — Kaffir (Fig. 51) and sorghum are 
both good substitutes for field corn and have the advantage 
of being suitable to feed green at almost any stage in their 
growth, because they are a little more fibrous. Both sorghum 
and kaffir make rapid growth in warm weather on good soil. 

The Legume Family. — This is a family of plants of great 
value to agriculture. The legume family is often called the 



FARM CROPS 101 

clover or pea family, after prominent members of the group. 
Other common plants included in it are beans, lentils, locust 
trees, alfalfa, vetches, lupins, cow peas, and soy beans. 

The growth of characteristic one-sided blossoms and the 
formation of seed in a pod are distinguishing features of the 
members of this family. 

They have power, under proper conditions, of taking 
free nitrogen from the air for their own use in growing. They 
have nodules on their roots which are the homes of special 
kinds of helpful bacteria. It is when these bacteria are 
present that the plants can use the nitrogen from the air. 
None but members of this family are thus able to use the 
free nitrogen. But when the stubble and roots of the legumes 
decay they leave nitrogen in the soil in a form which other 
kinds of crops can use. As nitrogen is the most expensive 
element in purchased fertilizers, farmers should use members 
of this family often in the rotation courses to secure nitrogen 
in the soil for all crops. (Page 87.) 

Exercise. — To Become Acquainted with Some Legumes. — 
The members of the class should bring samples of different 
clovers, alfalfa, vetch (wild pea), beans, peas, or other 
legumes. If possible, examine the pods of seed in the heads 
of clover and on other plants. Note also the one-sided 
appearance of the blossoms on all of them. The clover 
heads are composed of many blossoms. 

Exercise. — Nodules on Clover Roots. — Have some of 
the older pupils dig up roots of clover, alfalfa, or other leg- 
umes. Wash them and find the nodules or lumps, the size 
of a pin-head or larger. These are the homes of many bac- 
teria which aid the clover plants in getting nitrogen. Save 
the best samples obtained in this exercise by placing themi 
in a bottle of water with a small amount (2 per cent) of 
formalin added to it. (See Figs. 52 and 55a.) 

Legumes for Summer Forage. — Farmers should give 
some attention to the growing of several legume crops and 



102 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



mixed crops for use when pastures are dry in summer, and 
also for winter forage. 

There are two summer, or hot weather, legumes which 
should alwaj^s find a place in the rotations on a dairy farm. 
Cow peas (Fig. 53) and soy beans have both been tried so 
often that their use is no longer an experiment. 




Fig. 52. — Alsike-clover roots (on left) and garden-pea roots (on right). Useful 
bacteria live in these nodules and enable the plants to use nitrogen from the air which 
they otherwise could not do. 



They have many advantages: Quick, dense growth if 
sown in warm weather; a big supply of green forage to feed 
when pastures are dry; very good for hay if cut and cured 
in dry weather ; ten to twelve per cent of 'protein in the cured 
crop; a very high content of protein in the ripened seed, 
especially of soy beans; a big supply of nitrogen and green 
manure for the improvement of the soil if the crop is turned 
under, or even if the stubble and roots only are worked in; 
and the deep roots are a great physical help in most soils. 



FARM CROPS 



103 



In a warm spring it is safe to sow cow peas early in June, 
and the quick-growing varieties will be ready to begin feeding 
green by the middle of July. Six or seven pecks of seed per 
acre are sown. By a succession of sowings of two or three 




FlO. 53. — Cow peas grown in hot weather in eight weeks. They produce good green 
feed or green manure. (Experiment Station, N.J.; 



varieties we can give the cows fresh green forage every day 
from early July until frost time. 

Cow=Pea Mixtures. — A larger yield to the acre can be 
produced by mixing cow peas or soy beans with other crops. 
We must choose a crop that does best in the hot weather, 



104 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

such as barnyard millet, pearl millet, sorghum, kaffir, or 
even common field corn. These all serve as nurse crops 
and allow the use of taller climbing varieties of cow peas. 
Under most conditions the mixtures are better for the dairy 
farmer than the cow peas alone. The mixtures usually cure 
better if any is left to cut for hay. Splendid winter forage is 
thus produced. 

The True Clovers. — The most important clovers of the 
Northern States are white or Dutch clover, red clover, 
alsike or Swedish clover, and crimson or scarlet clover. The 
clovers are the most popular forage plants of the legume 
family. 

White clover is a low trailing perennial plant with white 
blossom heads. It is too low to be useful for hay, but is 
abundantly grown in pastures. 

Red clover is more commonly grown for hay in the North 
and East than any other legume. It lives about two years. 
There are two varieties — the common or medium and the 
mammoth or sapling clover. The latter is coarser and taller 
and blossoms later. They are both often mixed with timothy 
for hay purposes. Red clover, if grown alone, will usually 
produce two crops of hay the year after sowing. The second 
growth may be saved for seed production, as the bumble- 
bees, which carry the pollen from blossom to blossom, are 
more abundant during the latter part of the summer. 

Alsike clover is more slender and shorter than red clover. 
It is a short-lived perennial, but it re-seeds itself in the 
field somewhat. The blossoms are shorter and smaller, so 
that common honey-bees will work in them and carry the 
pollen. Thus seed may be formed in the first crop in June. 
The hay made from alsike clover is finer and better, but the 
yield is lighter than red clover. These two clovers are often 
mixed together and with timothy for hay. 

Crimson clover is an annual plant which is hardy enough 
to live over winter as far north as the fortieth parallel of 



FARM CROPS 105 

latitude or farther north where soils are favorable (Fig. 48). 
It is chiefly used as a winter cover crop after early potatoes, 
or sown in cornfields in July to grow until spring. The 
following spring it may be plowed under as a green manure 
or it may be pastured or used for green forage. 

Methods of Starting Clover. — There are three methods 
of starting red clover. 

Probably the most common way is to sow the seed in early 
spring in a field of grain sown the fall before; or with spring 
grain sown at the same time. After the grain is off in summer 
the clover soon begins to show. 

Second, red clover is often given a better start by seeding 
alone in August or early September, just as for the summer 
seeding of timothy alone. This plan has the advantage of 
an extra plowing of the ground after the early crop has been 
harvested. Weeds are removed and weed-seed sprouted 
and killed. Lime is applied to a better purpose at that time 
after the fine seed bed is prepared. 

A third way is to seed the red clover in the cornfield 
in August just as crimson clover often is seeded with the last 
cultivation of the corn. After the corn is cut a stubble 
cutter is used so the field may be in suitable condition for the 
use of the mower next season. This rotation and method of 
seeding is less common, and for several reasons less desirable. 

Too many farmers allow their hayfields to stand three 
or more years. In such cases the clover plants die and other 
grasses, such as timothy and red top, and weeds fill the field. 
This is a bad mistake if dairy feed is wanted. Too often 
dairymen are trying to get milk from the feeding of timothy 
hay. Such grasses usually make only one good cutting a year, 
with a little aftermath. The clovers are twice as rich in pro- 
tein, and two good cuttings may be made. Furthermore, 
quicker rotations are better for the soil. 

When to Cut for Hay. — Red clover for hay should be cut 
early. Do not wait until its heads are a third brow^l. A 



106 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



better time is when the heads are just beginning to turn 
brown. This will make hay which has more protein in it 
and the cows like it better if it is cut early. 

Permanent Pastures. — A permanent pasture is a field 
which is used as a pasture each summer and does not enter 
into any systematic rotation. In some instances the field is 
used for such a pasture because of the rough surface making 
it untillable. It may be too steep or hilly, or too stony, or 
have too many stumps, or be too low and wet for cultivated 
crops. In some of these places pastures may be very good 
if properly maintained. 




Fig. 54. — Dump hay-rake used in raking hay into windrows. (Plant Industry.) 



In still other instances we find permanent pastures on 
the very best soil and over tillable areas. 

Good Pasture Plants. — Low white clover, Kentucky 
blue grass,' and timothy are the most popular and best plants 
for pastures where the climate is moist and cool. There are 
many other grasses which we often find growing with these, 
such as red top, meadow fescue, orchard grass, and Canada 
blue grass. A variety of grasses is best because of the dif- 
ferent kinds of seasons, and variations in soils. For example, 



FARM CROPS 107 

shallow-rooted plants like wet soils better than the deeper- 
rooted plants do; some stand drought better than others; 
some kinds require more lime in the soil than others. 

Bad Conditions in Pastures. — Too often the permanent 
pasture is a field of weeds with very little grass to be found 
most of the summer. The conditions grow worse each year. 
Little feed is supplied to the cows pasturing there; milk is 
made bitter and given other bad flavors by garlic, wild 
onions, and other weeds, eaten by the animals. The number 
of acres used for the pasture often fools the dairyman into 
the thought that the cows get plenty of feed from it if they 
want it. Here is where the trouble begins. The cows do get 
a fair amount of grass for a while in June. But the change 
comes; the dry weather strikes it; the grasses are shallow 
rooted; the result is dead grass. The blossom and seeding 
time for early grasses comes; this also means death. 

How to Keep Good Pastures. — The pasture should be 
filled with good stands of mixed grasses. The farmer should 
maintain the pasturage to the best of his ability. Certain 
amendments or improvements are needed from time to time — 
such as fertilizing, liming, re-seeding, harrowing, mowing, 
and using a few sheep in the pasture with the cows. 

Fertilizers and manures, particularly nitrate of soda, 
may be spread a few weeks before the stock are turned on 
to the pastures in the spring. 

Lime should he applied to low meadow land every year 
or two. Clovers, blue grass, and timothy do much better 
after the liming. 

Re=seeding is a good practice. More seed should be 
soAATi wherever the grasses are not so thick as thej^ should 
be. A good time for this is very early in the spring. The 
thicker we make the grass the less room there is for weeds. 

Harrowing is quite possible on many parts of most pas- 
tures. A number of harrowings each spring will pay well. 

Mowing the pasture twice each year will help to check 



108 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

the growth of weeds and will prevent many of them from 
seeding. It also helps the growth of all grasses. The cutting 
should be made high, as a low cutting destroys too much of 
the valuable leaf growth of the lower grasses. In a pasture, 
the tall weeds and tall grasses that have sent up seed stalks 
should be mown down. The cows do not like them because 
they are old and fibrous. 

Sheep may be used in a very rough pasture along with 
cows to help keep down the weeds. They have a liking for 
many kinds of weeds and keep them eaten close to the 
ground. Too many sheep will eat the grasses so close that 
cows cannot get enough. 

REVIEW. 

1. What do you understand by system or lack of system referred 
to on the first page of this chapter? 

2. After making a farm map, tell whether you think there are too 
many fields or too few. 

3. Eastern farms usually have many more fields than Western 
farms. Tell of the advantages if any in each case. 

4. What are the advantages of having a farm map? 

5. What is the soiling system? 

6. What are soiling crops? 

7. What are some advantages of summer soiling for dairy cows? 

8. Why is there need for it in connection with the pasture system? 

9. Name some of the crops for spring and early summer soiling. 

10. Name some better suited to growth in hot summer. 

11. Mention three uses of oats-and-peas. 

12. At what stage should this crop be cut to cure for hay? 

13. When may soy beans and cow peas be sown? 

14. What are some reasons in their favor? 

15. Give a list of common plants belonging to the legume family. 

16. Give two characteristics of this family. 

17. How does the growth of legumes in a field aid the soil ? 

18. Why should a farmer use legumes in a rotation with other crops? 

19. What does the absence of nodules from the roots of clover tell 
the farmer? 

20. Name four kinds of clover and give the length of life of each. 

21. What is the chief use of white clover? 

22. Which two clovers are most commonly cut for hay? 

23. Tell of the two varieties of red clover. 

24. What bees pollinate red clover? What bees pollinate alsike 
clover? 

25. Of what special use is crimson clover? 

26. Which of the three methods described for starting red clover 
is considered the best? 



ALFALFA 109 

27. At what stage should red clover be cut for hay? 

28. In what kinds of fields are permanent pastures often found? 

29. Name the plants to be grown in the best pastures. 

30. Mention some of the bad conditions associated with permanent 
pastures. 

31. Tell of five things to help maintain permanent pastures. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 28, Weeds: And How to 
Kill Them; 121, Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food; 164, Rape as 
a Forage Crop; 224, Canadian Field Peas; 278, Leguminous Crops for 
Green Manuring; 312, A Successful Southern Hay Farm; 315, Progress 
in Legume Inoculation; 323, Clover Farming on the Sandy Jack- 
pine Lands of the North; 331, Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and 
Oklahoma; 361, Meadow Fescue: Its Culture and Uses; 362, Conditions 
Affecting the Value of Market Hay; 402, Canada Bluegrass: Its Culture 
and Uses. 



CHAPTER XI. 
ALFALFA. 



Alfalfa is the best milk-producing crop we can grow. 
It may be used either for green feed or for hay, but in the 
East it is best not to pasture it. It is so rich in protein that 
a ton of the dry hay is equal to a ton of bran for dairy cows. 
It produces heavy yields; the farmer may expect from four 
to five or even six or seven tons of cured hay each season 
from an acre. 

Alfalfa as Green Feed. — As a green feed there is nothing 
that will excel it. Alfalfa reproduces itself frequently and 
constantly throughout the summer, by a quick new growth 
each time it is cut. A good stand of alfalfa on four or five 
acres will supply all the green feed needed for a herd of 
twenty-five cows from the latter part of May until the middle 
of September. A little is cut at a time so as to keep it always 
rather fresh for the cows. By the time the entire field is thus 
fed off, the side of the field first cut is again ready for cutting. 

A Soil Improver. — There is one more strong argument in 
favor of alfalfa growing, viz., it is a soil improver. The roots 
reach down deep and recover lost minerals such as potash 
and phosphoric acid. The plant is a great feeder on nitrogen 



110 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

from the air. The store of nitrogen in the roots and stubble, 
when plowed under, will help produce large corn or other 
crops on that field afterwards. 

Sprouting Weed Seeds. — An early field of oats-and-peas 
should be grown in the spring and the stubble plowed under 
in June or as soon as the crop is all off. The ground is har- 
rowed about once a week until the middle of August. This 
makes a good alfalfa seed bed; it controls the soil moisture, 
and also causes the weeds to sprout and be killed by the 
harrow. Now if we select alfalfa seed that is free from weed 
seed, we will have very little or no trouble from weeds in the 
alfalfa field later on. The seen I should be examined with a 
good reading glass before sowing. 

Inoculation of Soils. — As alfalfa requires its own bacteria 
in th(> soil where it is growing, the grower should get four 
or five hundred pounds of soil from the nearest alfalfa field 
and spread it on each acre of the new field. Do this when 
the sun is not shining so the bacteria will not be killed. It 
should be harrowed in immediately. These germs in the new 
soil will be ready to help the young plants as soon as they 
start to grow (Figs., 55a and b). New alfalfa fields require 
inoculation before sowing the seed, except in a few parts of 
the country where certain wild legumes like sweet clover have 
used the same kind of bacteria. 

Liming the Field. — Alfalfa is a great lover of lime. It 
is best to plow the field and apply at least a ton of fine lime 
to each acre not long before seeding. If some lime was put 
on that field in early spring before the oats-and-peas so much 
the better. 

The Seeding of Alfalfa. — We should be all ready to do 
the alfalfa seeding by the time the first August rains moisten 
the ground enough to sprout seeds well. 

Half a bushel of seed, or thirty pounds, is abundant for 
one acre. Half of it can be sown the long way of the field and 
then the last half put in cross-wise of that. In sections 



ALFALFA 



111 



where alfalfa is seeded in the spring, it is sown very early, 
and often with oats. 

Good Drainage. — The field selected for alfalfa should 
be well drained and no water should stand near the surface. 
The roots naturally run down very deep (Fig. 55a), and they 
cannot stand free water at all. A field rich enough and well 
enough drained to produce good corn or oats will do for 
alfalfa. A small application of fertilizer will help to start 
the crop off well. 




Fig. 5oa. — Nodules or tubercles on alfalfa, showing the characteristic location 
on fine fibrous roots. 

Fig. 556. — Students studying the nodules on alfalfa roots. (Agricultural Edu- 
cation.) 



Cut Four Times a Year. — Do not cut the crop the first 
fall but allow it to stand until the next May or June before 
the first cutting is made. That season and each following 
year the crop should be cut four times (Fig. 56). There are 
two signs to follow in deciding when to cut any growth of 
alfalfa. First, never let it get too far along in the blossom 
stage. Cut it when the blossoms are just showing a little 
over the field. The second indication of the cutting stage 
is the slight starting of the buds on the sides of the stems at 
the surface of the ground. The new growth starting from 
those buds means that the crop must be cut and removed 



112 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



very quickly, otherwise the new growth would be much 
injured. If, at any time, a yellow appearance or any spots 
on the leaves should be seen, the crop should be cut. The 
last cutting should be made in September so as to give time 
for a new growth to start before winter sets in. This will 
help to prevent winter injury. 




Fio. 56.— A. Hay (Ml.; ai-<- ufl.a usr.l 
iln humid climates. (ExiJiiiiuLut, .Suuiuu, iN. 
B. Loading alfalfa by band power. 



■f alfalfa 



Curing Alfalfa Hay. — It is sometimes quite difficult to 
cure the earliest cutting because of the rains late in May and 
early in June. Alfalfa is very nmch injured if wet by rain 
after it is cut. We must keep it dry during the curing pro- 
cess (Fig. 56, A). The sap in the stems does not do so much 
injury; so it may be put in the barn with more of its own 



ALFALFA 



113 



moisture than almost any other hay crop. If allowed to 
get too dry before hauling in it will lose many leaves, and 




Fia. 57. riisli pdwcr sweep rake used in taking hay to a stack in the field. 
(Plant Industry.) 

they are the best part of the crop. With a little care alfalfa 
can be cured in perfect condition, because the time required 
for curing is not long (Figs. 57, 58). 




Fk;. vs. II:i , , l.ukiiiK inacirmr-. Tl.r lia\ in taki 
65) anil lifted {•> llic stuck Ijy horse-power. Nolice llie li 
(Plant Industry.) 



rake (Fig. 
I llie rope. 



Ten Alfalfa Rules. — For the sake of brevity let us sum- 
marize the chief points in alfalfa management. The following 
ten rules are quite comprehensive. 
8 



114 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

1. Lime the soil by applying about one ton of lime per 
acre just before sowing the seed. 

2. Inoculate the new alfalfa field by spreading and har- 
rowing in about five hundred pounds per acre of good soil 
from an old alfalfa field when the sun is not shining. 

3. Have the soil as free from weed seed as possible by using 
a bare fallow for a few weeks before seeding. 

4. Be sure that the alfalfa seed is perfectly pure and free 
from weed seeds. 

5. Use plenty of seed, about thirty pounds per acre, sow- 
ing it both length-wise and cross-wise of the field. 

6. Use good fertile soil and apply some high-grade fertilizer 
about the time of sowing the seed. 

7. Always select a well-drained field for alfalfa. 

8. Cut the crop often — about four times a year, beginning 
with the spring following the August sowing. 

9. Cure the hay carefully to avoid shattering of the leaves 
and to avoid its getting wet with rain. 

10. Do not use the field for pasture, particularly while 
it is young. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give several arguments in favor of growing alfalfa. 

2. Tell of the use of alfalfa as a green dairy feed. 

3. In what ways does alfalfa improve the soil where it is grown? 

4. Give three benefits of a few weeks of bare fallowing before the 
August seeding of alfalfa. 

5. Tell how a new alfalfa field may be inoculated with the bacteria 
which the plants need. 

6. How much lime should be spread, and when? 

7. Give time, amount, and manner of seeding alfalfa. 

8. Which is better for alfalfa, upland or lowland? Why? 

9. Tell of two things which indicate when to cut alfalfa for hay. 

10. Tell one difficulty in curing alfalfa hay; and mention one advan- 
tage over other kinds of hay, in its curing. 

11. Give briefly the tenpoints covered by the ten alfalfa rules. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 77, The Liming of Soils; 
194, Alfalfa Seed; 260, Seed of Red Clover and its Impurities; 306, 
Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds; 339, Alfalfa; 373, Irrigation of 
Alfalfa; 382, Adulteration of Forage-plant Seeds. 



COTTON 115 

CHAPTER XII. 

COTTON PRODUCTION. 

The cotton plant was cultivated in the Old World in 
the earliest historic times. It probably originated in India 
or China. The ancients of India wove the fil)er into very 
good cloth. Alexander the Great introduced the plant into 
Europe, Cotton was also gro\vn by the natives of Mexico 
and South America before the discovery of the New World 
b}' Columbus. 

To Virginia belongs the credit of first starting the culti- 
vation of cotton in the American Colonies. This was in 1621. 
After that it rapidly became a leading money crop of the 
farmers of the South. The labor of removing the lint from 
the seeds greatly reduced the profit from this crop for many 
years. It was a day's labor to separate the seeds from one 
pound of cotton. But in 1792 the cotton gin was invented 
by Eli Whitney. This machine, as improved later, greatly 
increased the profits of cotton raising. 

Importance of the American Cotton Crop.— Cotton is 
far the most important fiber crop of the world. Twelve 
Southern States now supply more than two-thirds of the 
cotton of the world. All nations rnake clothing from Ameri- 
can cotton. We sell more cotton to other countries than all 
other agricultural products combined. 

Other countries producing large amounts of cotton are 
British India, Egypt, Russia, China, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, 
Turkey and Persia. But all of these combined produce 
only one-half as much cotton as is grown in the United States. 

The ten leading States in the production of cotton are 
in the following order: Texas, Georgia, Mississippi, Ala- 
bama, South Carolina, Arkansas, Oklahoma, North Carolina, 
Louisiana and Tennessee. 

Uses of Cotton. — The fibers of the commonest cotton 
are only about one inch long, but they become very much 



116 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



twisted as they ripen (Fig. 59a). This twist causes them to 
cling together well to form thread when put through the 
spinning process (Fig. 596). The thread may then be woven 



a 


b 






HI 











Courtesy of Johnson & Johnson. 

Fig. 59a. — Individual fibers of long-staple or Sea Island cotton. The lengths 
of the five are about equal. The ripest are very kinky. (After Brooks.) 

Fig. 596. — Slivers or hanks of cotton in different steps of making thread or 
yarn. The factory names are: 1, drawing hank; 2, stubbing hank; 3, intermediate 
hank; 4, roving hank; 5, yarn or thread. 




Fig. 60. — Modern looms, all weaving white cotton cloth. One person can sepa- 
rate twelve to sixteen such looms at a time. Each machine makes seven square 
yards of cloth per hour, using 3,024 yards of yarn to each yard of cloth. 

into cloth (Fig. 60), or formed into rope. The longest fibers 
of lint are desirable for use in making sewing thread, and in 
mixing with the shorter fibers in certain grades of cloth. 



COTTON 117 

Exercise. — Examine the fibers of cotton from a cotton 
boll or from a roll of cotton. Notice how minute they are 
when seen separately. Try twisting a few of the fibers to- 
gether to form a thread. Pull them along as you twist them 
and they will gather up more fibers from the pile of cotton. 

The Cotton's Relatives. — The cotton plant belongs to 
the same family of plants as the hollyhocks, okra, althea, 
mallow weed, and many others. The group is called the 
mallow family. 

Types of Cotton. — There are several different types or 
kinds of cotton. Those growai in the United States are all 
annual, that is, they are all killed by freezing in the fall ; but 
in tropical countries they live for many years. Even here 
the plants sprout up from the old root after a mild winter. 

Cotton grown in this country is chiefly of three kinds: 
(1) Commonor Short-staple upland cotton, (2) Long-staple up- 
land cotton, and (3) Sea Island cotton (Fig. 59a) . Important 
kinds grown elsewhere are (1) India cotton, with very short 
staple, (2) true Peruvian or Egyptian cotton, with long 
staple, usually brownish in color. 

American Upland Cotton. — As shown above, the upland 
cotton is of two kinds, short-staple and long-staple. Together 
these make up all of the American cotton crop, except the 
Sea Island cotton, grown in small amounts, chiefly near the 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 

Short-staple differs from long-staple cotton in length of 
the lint which surrounds the seeds. Short-staple is from 
% to V/i inches long (Fig. 61), and long-staple is usually 1% to 
1% inches long. These varieties may also differ in other 
ways. The long-staple plants are taller, later in maturing 
and have slender, pointed bolls, with less lint. But the long- 
staple sells for a higher price. 

Sea Island Cotton. — This gets its name from the fact 
that it originated in the West India Islands. It grows well 
on the islands and mainland within one hundred miles of 
the coast. Georgia, South Carolina and Florida are increas- 



118 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

ing the growth of the Sea Island cotton. The price of this 
type of cotton is high because of the great value of such long 
fibers in making spool cotton for sewing. This plant grows 
rather taller than u})lan(l cotton, has long, flexible branches; 




Courtesy of Johnson tt Johnson, New Hninswi 
Fig. 61. — Four grades of lint, showing length of fiber, from samples of short- 
staple upland cotton. The relative amounts are also indicated by the masses in 
the photograph. 

the leaves are more deeply lobed; the flowers are yellow 
instead of white when freshly opened; the staple is longer, 
and the seeds are free from lint after ginning. 



COTTON 119 

Improvement of G)tton. — Cotton growers are able to 
improve their crops very greatly by the proper selection of 
varieties and selection of seed from heavy yielding plants. 

As usually grown here the plant is either erect or bushy 
and varies in height from three to eight feet. The length 
and arrangement of branches are indications of earliness and 
productiveness. Cotton itself has other desirable qualities, 
such as strength of lint, fineness, and uniformity of color. Im- 
provement of cotton is best accomplished by selecting seed 
from plants with such desirable qualities. 

The yields of cotton may be greatly increased by proper 
fertilizers, good rotations, early planting, securing a good 
stand of plants and frequent tillage. 

Selecting Seed.— The grower should select the seed just be- 
fore or during the second picking, and avoid planting seed from 
later pickings. Select bolls from thrifty plants with compact 
growth of branches. The branches should have short nodes or 
joints and be abundantly supplied with bolls. Always select 
the largest bolls with long fiber. Avoid picking for seed from 
any unhealthy plants. Avoid also those bolls where the cotton 
tends to fall to the ground, as such are not "storm proof." 

If a grower is to purchase cotton seed for planting, he 
should select such varieties as will best resist disease. Varieties 
of upland cotton most abundantly planted are Peterkin, Truitt 
and Russell. In Texas, where the ])oll-worm and boll-wee\il 
insects are present, Triumph is commonly grown. Other pro- 
ductive varieties suited to special soils or seasons are : King, 
Cook, Cleveland, Toole, and Layton. The Alabama Experi- 
ment Station rej^orts over 200 varieties of cotton gro\vn there. 

It is usually best for growers to select their own seed for 
planting. In every field the plants vaiy through all degrees 
from very good to very poor. By carefully selecting as above 
suggested the next crop can be greatly improved. 

Range of Cotton. — Cotton needs a long growing season, 
with six or more months of warm growing weather free from 
frosts. This condition is found chiefly south of latitude 37°. 



120 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

It is desirable to have an abundant rainfall evenly distributed 
through the growing season, but with plenty of sunshine at 
least during the ripening months. 

Soil. — Cotton prefers a medium loam, but will thrive in 
almost any good farm soil if the conditions of temperature 
and rainfall are favorable. The soil should be deep, as the 
plant has a tap root and is a deep feeder. If there be a clay 
subsoil it should be down about two feet from the surface. 
Good drainage is important, but there should be enough 
humus present to cause the soil to hold moisture well. When 
cotton is grown each year on the same field it is well to grow 
some crop for green manure between the rows of cotton, to 
be plowed under in the fall or the next spring. Such crops 
might be cow peas, peanuts, or soy beans. As legumes to 
grow all winter in the cotton field it is well to use crimson 
clover, and winter vetch, which may be sown in the cotton 
field in early fall, or just after the fall plowing (Fig. 48). 

On poor sandy soil the rust disease of cotton is worse 
than on loams or heavy soils. If the soil is too rich, as along 
some rivers, the cotton plants grow large and coarse without 
developing much cotton. 

Preparation of Soils. — Unless there is a winter cover crop 
growing in the field, it is best to plow the soil for cotton in 
the fall. This helps to get rid of the boll-worm and boll- 
weevil, sprouts the waste cotton seed in time to be killed 
by freezing, and the old stalks are turned under in time to 
decay and form humus. 

When cotton was grown on the field the preceding year, 
the disposal of the stalks and litter is a serious difficulty. 
Sometimes they are pulled and burned, but this is bad 
practice. It is better to beat the stalks to pieces on a frosty 
day, or drag them down with a heavy iron bar, or cut them to 
pieces with a stalk cutter made for the purpose. After they 
are broken or cut to pieces they ma}^ be readily plowed under. 

The plowing should be thorough and complete, and the 
deeper the better if no bad soil is brought to the surface by 



COTTON 121 

so doing. If this broadcast plowing is done in the fall, the 
soil may be plowed up into ridges or beds in the spring ready 
for planting. The best cotton growers are rapidly adopting 
this plan of " double preparation " of the soil — first plowing 
and then ridging. A crop of green manure may be grown on 
the land after the fall plowing. This is particularly desirable 
if the soil is very light. Small grains, winter vetch or 
crimson clover may be used. 

The ridges may be formed in spring either with a turn- 
ing plow or with a disk-harrow if the field has been first 
plowed in the fall. The plan of forming low ridges or beds 
with the disk-harrow is better, more rapid and less expensive. 

The rows for planting are marked off with a shovel plow 
and commercial fertilizer is usually distributed in this row. 
Simple drills are also in use which form the furrow, spread 
the fertilizer and then draw some soil over it. 

Fertilizers for Cotton. — The crop of cotton itself is not 
hard on the soil if the cotton seeds or their equivalent be 
returned to the field. The cotton seed is fed to stock and 
the stable manure is returned to the field without much 
loss in fertility. If the seed is sold, the grower should buy 
enough fertilizer to take its place. For every 100 pounds of 
cotton seed sold a return should be made of 3 pounds nitro- 
gen, 1 pound phosphoric acid and 1% pounds potash. In 
addition to this a liberal allowance should be made for losses 
from the soil by washing and leaching. If green manures 
are used by growing legumes, the nitrogen supply will be 
kept up and humus will be formed. Most cotton soils have 
an abundance of potash; but they respond readily to increased 
applications of phosphoric acid, increasing the yield of bolls 
and lint, and forcing earlier ripening. Too much nitrogen 
may cause a rank, " weedy " growth with little cotton. Too 
much potash delays the ripening of the crop. 

Planting. — The distance between cotton rows is 3K to 4 
feet, and 12 to 18 incJies are allowed between plants in the 
row. Allow about 1 to 1% bushels of seed per acre to insure 



122 • PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

a good stand of plants. Planting begins about two weeks 
later than the date of the last killing frost. March 10th or 
15th is often the time for beginning the planting near the 
Gulf coast; April 1st to 10th near the central latitude of 
the cotton belt; and early May in the northern limits of 
cotton growing. 

There are several forms of cotton planters which are not 
expensive. A good machine will drop the seed uniformly in 
a small furrow and cover it with an inch or two of soil. 

Exercise. — Let some member of the class write to the 
U. S. Weather Bureau, at Washington, and get a table or 
report which will show the dates for the last spring frosts 
for a number of years past. From this report let the class 
determine the best date for beginning the planting of cotton. 

Cultivation. — A weeder or light harrow should be used 
over the field before planting and also after planting. This 
broadcast tillage will prevent small weeds from getting started 
ahead of the cotton plants and will also prevent the soil 
from becoming crusted. A weeder should also be used over 
the young cotton plants just before the thinning process 
begins. This may not be advisable if the stand is thin or 
the ground very stony or otherwise rough. Thinning of the 
plants is usually necessary. This is done by chopping out the 
surplus plants with heavy hoes. It is a good practice to culti- 
vate the individual rows, setting the shovels to throw the soil 
away from the plants, just before the thinning or chopping 
begins. Subsequent cultivation should move the soil back 
toward the plants. The cultivation should be frequent and 
shallow. It is continued until about time for picking to 
begin. When the plants completely shade the soil, a crust is 
not apt to form and further cultivation is not so necessary. 

Harvesting. — Although several machines have been 
invented for harvesting cotton, none have come into general 
use, and the cotton crop is picked by hand. It is the most 
expensive part of cotton production (Fig. 62), The price 
paid to pickers varies from 40 to 80 cents per hundred pounds 



COTTON 123 

of seed cotton, or about six to twelve dollars per bale of 500 
pounds of cotton. A picker can readily average 200 pounds 
of seed cotton per day. The fields have to be gone over 
several times as the bolls do not all ripen at once. The har- 
vesting of cotton runs through September, October and 
November, and should be finished before December. 

The most productive fields will grow more than two bales 
per acre, and many more fields exceed one bale per acre, 




Courtesy of Johnson & Johnson, New Hrunswick, N. ], 

Fig. 62. — A typical cotton-picking scene. 

but in spite of these high yields the average for the cotton 
belt is only 200 pounds or two-fifths of a bale per acre. 

On the United States " demonstration " farms in South 
Carolina the recent average yield per acre was nearly 600 
pounds, while on similar farms in that State the average was 
less than half as much. The yield in Louisiana, due to the 
United States "demonstration" methods, was increased from 
380 up to 760 pounds per acre. These facts show the value 
of studying and using better methods in cotton production. 

Problem.- — A man increased his cotton yield from 200 up 
to 800 pounds per acre by selecting seed properly. The 
extra cost for such work may be estimated at 75 cents per 
acre. If he grows 22 acres of cotton, what is his profit 
due to seed selection, the selling price being 10 cents per 



124 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

pound? (Consider the extra work of picking and ginning as 
balanced by the increased seed yield.) 

Preparation for Market. — A public ginnery is usually 
found in any section where cotton is raised. The seed cotton 
is hauled from the field to the cotton gin. The suction pipes 
lift it from the wagons and take it to the gin stand, where 
it is taken over fine-toothed revolving circular saws. These 
saws separate the lint from the seeds, which are kept from 
passing along over the revolving saws by means of long 
stationary teeth or combs. The seeds may be stored in a 
seed room of the ginnery or may be returned directly to 
the grower's wagon. The white lint (Fig. 63) is carried by 
the machine into a large hydraulic press, where it is covered 
with coarse bagging and bound by iron bands into bales of 
about 500 pounds each (Fig. 64). 

Baled cotton is too often exposed for months without 
shelter from the weather. This may darken and weaken the 
outer layers and reduce the selling price of it all. 

Most cotton intended for shipment a long distance is put 
through a compressor to reduce the size of the bales. 

Market Grades of Cotton. — The price paid for cotton at 
any time is governed by the grade or quality. The grade 
is determined by samples taken from the bales. When a 
grower sells his cotton, the buyer usually does the grading. 
The seven principal market grades of cotton in order of 
value are: (1) fair; (2) middle fair; (3) good middling; (4) 
middling; (5) low middling; (6) good ordinary; and (7) ordi- 
nary. There are sub-divisions of these principal grades which 
are designated by prefixing such terms as "strict," "fully," 
or "barely." Most of our American cotton is poorer than 
middling fair, and grades as high or higher than middling. 

By=products of Cotton. — The chief by-product of the 
cotton crop is cottonseed. This is now used for several 
purposes. The hulls are removed by machinery. Oil is 
extracted from the kernels by cooking and pressing. Cotton 
oil is used in making salad oils, cottolene, oleomargarine, 



COTTON 



1^25 




Courtesy Johnson ^^i Johnson. 



Fig. 63. — Inside view of ginnery, showing sheet of loose cotton lint as it comes from 
the cotton gin, just before baling. 




Plioto. liy Russell, Annistoii, Al.l. Courtesy Johnson tV Jolinson. 



Fig. 64. — A local cotton market in Alabama, showing common form of bales. The 
cotton is too often thus exposed to weather without shelter for several months. 



126 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

soaps, and other articles. The remaining part of the seed 
after pressing out the oil is ground into cottonseed meal and 
used for stock feed, particularly for dairy cows. (See com- 
position in Appendix Table VIII.) It is also used as a fer- 
tilizer as it is so rich in nitrogen. The hulls are also used for 
stock feed and fertilizer. 

• In ginning the cotton for one bale, nearly 1000 pounds 
of seed are obtained. This amount of seed at the oil mill 
will produce about the following numbers of pounds: Oil 
150; cottonseed hulls 400; cottonseed meal 375; linters, 
trash, and dirt 75. 

The fibers of the stems and branches of the cotton plant 
are sometimes used in the manufacture of coarse grades of 
bagging. 

Diseases of Cotton. — Cotton wilt, cotton rust and cotton 
root-knot are the most common diseases likely to affect the 
crop if it is grown year after year on the same soil. If a 
good rotation of crops is kept up as with corn, wheat, and 
legumes, there is little danger from disease. 

Insect Enemies. — The cotton plant is not seriously 
affected with insects except in the squares and bolls. Two 
insects do most of this damage, the boll-weevil and the 
boll-worm. 

The Mexican boll=weevil has now spread over the south- 
eastern and central parts of Texas, much of Louisiana and 
the adjacent portions of Mississippi, Arkansas and Oklahoma. 
The area is increasing rapidly. In those sections only such 
farmers as practice the best methods of cotton culture are 
able to continue raising the crop successfully. As this insect 
spreads over the cotton belt it causes much change in the 
methods of growing the crop. 

When the insect appears in early summer, it first attacks 
the buds and the flower leaves, called "squares" (Fig. 65a). 
These soon fall to the ground. The earliest buds may escape 
the injury and develop bolls and cotton. 



COTTON 



127 



There are several methods of preventing damage from 
boll-weevil : 





FiQ. 65o. — Cotton square, showing boll-weevil imposition. Natural size. 
(After Hunter.) 

Fia. 656. — Cotton-worm from side and above. 

1. By forcing the cotton crop to early maturity much 
of the loss due to weevils is overcome. The grower should 



128 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

force his crop to set fuany bolls before weevils are abundant. 
Only the late buds will then receive the attack of the enemy. 
Forcing is done in several ways: 

(a) Prepare the soil thoroughly and early. 

(b) Plant early and use enough seed for a good stand of 

plants. 

(c) Cultivate often during the growing season. 

(d) Grow varieties which set bolls early. 

(e) Select seed from early fruiting plants. 
(/) Apply phosphoric acid fertilizer liberally. 

2. Pick the cotton crop as early as may be, and immedi- 
ately destroy the entire field of plants for the purpose of 
starving the weevils several weeks before cold weather drives 
them into winter quarters under trash. The prompt destruc- 
tion of the plants after harvest may be done in either of two 
ways: (a) cattle may be turned into the field in such num- 
bers as to eat all leaves and young growth, after which the 
stalks are promptly cut up and plowed under well. (6) The 
stalks may be pulled and burned. 

3. Poisoning the early spring weevils on the growing tips 
of cotton plants is sometimes tried. For this purpose arsenate 
of lead is applied in the form of powder at the rate of 2}^ 
pounds per acre. This must be done before the appearance 
of the first squares. 

4. Buds and squares which fall to the ground from the 
attacks of weevils should be caused to wilt very soon and 
thus prevent the further development of the insects which 
would soon form ajiother brood. The wilting may be has- 
tened by planting the rows far enough apart to let sunshine in 
freely. The wilting is also increased by dragging the^buds and 
squares to the open sunhght of the "middle." This is done 
by the use of a special chain cultivator devised for the purpose. 

The boll-worm (Fig. 656) does not confine its attention 
to cotton, but prefers young corn and tomatoes (Fig. 66). 
It is the same insect which we call the corn *' ear-worm." 



COTTON 



T29 




Smith's Economic Entomology. 

Fig. 66. — Work of cotton-worm or corn ear-worm, on corn and tomato. 

9 



130 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

After the nearby corn crops have passed the tender stage of 
the ears the future broods attack the squares and bolls of 
the cotton field. 

The best remedies are based upon this habit of the 
insects : 

1. Produce an early crop by the methods already sug- 
gested. Thus the cotton crop will be too far advanced to 
be injured when the attacks of the boll- worms begin. 

2. Use corn as a trap crop by planting at several different 
times, either near the cotton field or alternating three rows 
with every thirty rows of cotton. As the corn passes the 
tender stage it may be fed to cows, and the young insects 
thus destroyed (Fig. 66). 

3. Plow the fields in the fall to destroy the winter 
quarters of boll- worms. 

REVIEW. 

1. Tell something of the early history of cotton growing. 

2. How did the invention of the cotton gin help the cotton in- 
dustry of the world? 

3. Name the leading cotton growing States of America. 

4. In what ways are the other States of the Union interested in 
this great crop? 

5. What fraction of the world's crop do we produce? 

6. What other countries are important cotton producers? 

7. What three types of cotton do we grow? 

8. Describe the best climate and best soil for cotton. 

9. Give some reasons for plowing cotton fields in the fall. 

10. Give other steps in the preparation of soil for cotton planting. 

11. Tell of the uses of a weeder on a cotton field. 

12. Give distances and methods of planting cotton. 

13. Tell all you can about the picking of cotton. 

14. How does a cotton gin pick the lint from the seeds? 

15. Mention the seven principal market grades of cotton; which 
three are most commonly produced here? 

16. Mention several uses of the different by-products of the cotton 
crop. 

17. What is the best remedy for the cotton diseases mentioned? 

18. Where is the Mexican boll-weevil now most destructive? 

19. Mention four ways of combating this insect. 

20. Mention six ways of forcing an early cotton crop. 

21. Give three ways of fighting the boll-worm. 

References, — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 36, Cotton Seed and 
Its Products; 290, The Cotton Boll-worm; 302, Sea Island Cotton; 326, 
Building up a Rundown Cotton Plantation; 333, Cotton Wilt; 344, The 
Boll- Weevil Problem; 364, A Profitable Cotton Farm. Also Bulletm 
33 of the U. S. Office of Experiment Stations, on the Cotton Plant. 



CORN 131 



CHAPTER XIII. 
CORN. 

The Corn Crop. — Corn is king and alfalfa is queen. These 
two crops go together very well. On dairy farms, where 
these two crops are raised for the stock, we find very little 
outside feed is purchased. They cut down the feed bills 
enormously. Too few farmers in the dairy sections are 
trying alfalfa; and too many farmers are not doing their 
best even in the corn fields. 

Winter is the time to make plans for the corn crop for 
the following spring. If the seed is not already on hand it 
should be secured then and tested for its germinating powers. 
Winter is a good time to plan the fields and decide how much 
corn ground will be used for production of green forage, 
how much for ensilage, if any, and how much for winter 
fodder and ears. 

Types of Corn. — The four main types of corn raised in 
America are pop corn, sweet corn, flint corn, and dent corn. 
The two last are both spoken of as field corn. 

Flint Corn has a hard kernel which is short and rounded, 
with no dent in the top. There are only a few rows of kernels 
on the cob, eight rows being quite common. Flint corn 
matures quickly and is often grown where the warm season 
is short. There are several colors and a number of varieties 
(Fig. 67, Nos. 4, 10, 12, 14). 

Dent Corn has a longer kernel with a dent in the crown 
or top. The ears are large and the yield per acre is greater 
than with any other type. The many varieties or breeds of 
dent corn vary in color, length of season for ripening, shape 
of kernel, size, shape and length of ear, character of stalks, 
and in other ways. White and yellow are the commonest 



132 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



colors. The people in certain sections prefer white varieties, 
while in others the yellow corn is grown entirely. Corn does 
not vary in quality because of its color, but when white or 
yellow meal is preferred in certain markets the millers will 
buy corn of that color only. 

Exercise. — Kinds of Corn. — Have some of the best 
samples of the different types of corn brought to school by 
pupils. The ears should be wrapped in paper to prevent 
shelling. These may be compared and studied by use of 
a score card. Save the ears for future use in corn testing. 




Fio. 67. 



-Corn kernels of different shapes. Number 3 is one of the best. (A 
cultural Education.) 



Rules for Selecting or Judging Corn. — Seed corn should 
always be purchased on the cob if possible. Then we can 
tell whether the ears are of the type we want, or not. Too 
often the shelled corn we get comes from ears we would not 
try to grow if we saw them. 

The following explanation of points should be used in 
selecting corn for seed, and also in judging corn at exhibits. 



CORN 



133 



The corn exhibits may be held at school each winter and 
the score card used by the students and the judges. Ten 
ears of corn will constitute a sample. 

1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics. — All the 
ears selected should possess similar or like characteristics, 
and should be true to the variety which they represent 
(Fig. 68). Two representative kernels should be taken from 
each ear and placed germ side up in front of the ear and 
studied in connection with type in the ear. 




Fi... lis. A. Exhibit of Boys' Experiment Club in Nebraska. (Agricultural Educa- 
tionj B. Prize-winning corn and the boy who-grew it. (O. B. M.) 



2. Shape of Ear.— In shape the ears should conform to 
variety type. Each ear should be full and strong in the cen- 
tral portion and not taper too rapidly toward the tip. This 
is indicative of strong constitution and good yield (Fig. 69). 

3. Purity of Ear; (a) Grain. — In color the kernels should 
be true to variety and free from mixture. Difference in 
shade of color, as light or dark red, white or cream color, 
must be scored according to variety characteristics. (6) Cob. — 
An ear of white corn should have a white cob; yellow corn 
should have a red cob; if mixed mark it zero. A mixture 
reduces the value of the corn for seed purposes, indicates 



134 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



lack of purity, and tends toward a too wide variation in time 
of maturity, size, and shape of kernels (Fig. 70). 

4. Vitality or Seed Condition. — Corn should be in good 
market condition; show good constitution, and be capable 
of producing plants of strong vigorous growth and heavy 
yield. All indications of freezing or other injury from expo- 
sure and all evidences of immaturity show poor vitality. 
Corn with adhering chaff, or a black tip, caused by the tip 
cap adhering to the cob, is not in good condition. 




J.IG. 09. — (jood seed corn. The upper ear shows good even rows with very 
narrow spaces between rows and between kernels. Ilie tips of the cob should be 
covered with corn. Ihere is a good deep impression and small stem shown at the 
left. The kernels are deep as compared with the size of the cob, as shown. (U. S. 
Farmers' Bulletin 229.) 



5. Tips. — Tips (Fig. 69) should be regular, uniform, and 
properly proportioned with the body of the ear. The rows 
should be well carried out and the kernels conform closely 
to those in the main body of the ear in shape and size. The 
proportion to tip covered or filled must be considered. Long 
pointed tips as well as enlarged or double tips are objection- 
able. 

6. Butts.- — The rows of kernels (see Fig. 69) should extend 
in regular order over the butt, leaving a deep depression 



CORN 



135 



when the stem is removed. Opened and swelled butts, 
depressed and flat butts with flattened glazed kernels are 
objectionable. 

7. Kernels. — (a) The kernels should be uniform in size 
and shape, making it possible so to grade the corn as to 
secure even dropping by the planting machine. This is 
essential to securing a good stand. Not only should the 
kernels be uniform on the individual ear but they should be 




Fio. 70. — Large cob on the left with small layer of com. i^mall cob on the right 
with deep layer of corn. 



uniform with all the ears selected, (b) The shape of kernels 
should be such that their edges touch from tip to crown 
(see Fig. 67, 3). The tip portion of the kernel is rich in 
protein and oil, and hence of high feeding value. Kernels 
with large germs insure strong, vigorous growth as well as 
richness in quality of kernel. Germs should be large, showing 
strength and high feeding value (Figs. 71, 72). 

8. Length of Ear. — The length of the ear varies according 
to variety, type and the characteristics sought by the indi- 



136 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



vidual farmer. Uniformity of length is to be sought in a 
sample, and a sample having even length of ears should 
score higher than one that varies, even if it is within the limits 
(Fig. 73). The usual length of ears for the northern section 
for dent corn is 7 to 9 inches; central section, 83/2 to 9}^ 
inches; southern section, 10 to 12 inches. Very long ears 



FiQ. 71. 




Fig. 72. 




Fig. 71. — Sections and surface views of kernels of corn. The three on the right 
show large germs and have much protein, those on the left small germs and less 
protein. (Agricultural Education.) 

Fig. 72. — Diagram of a section of corn kernel, enlarged, showing the locations 
of starch, embryo, horny part rich in protein, and the protein layer under the hull. 
In kernels where the germ is large and the horny part is large toward the tip there 
is much protein. Such corn makes the best feed and should be selected when choos- 
ing seed corn. 



are objectionable, as they usually have poor butts and tips, 
shallow kernels and hence less corn on the cob. Same vari- 
eties produce several small ears on each stalk. 

9. Circumference of Ear. — The circumference of the ear 
should be in symmetry with its length. An ear too great 
in circumference for its length is generally slow in maturing, 
and too frequently results in soft corn. Dimensions for the 
northern section for dent corn are Q}/2 to 7 inches in cir- 



CORN 



137 



cumference; central section, 6 ^^ to 73^ inches; southern 
section, 7 to 8 inches. Measure the circumference at one- 
third the distance from the butt to the tip of the ear. 

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows. — The furrows between the 
rows of kernels should be of sufficient size to allow the corn 
to dry readily, but not so large as to lose in proportion of 
corn to cob. (b) Space Between Tips of Kernels at Cob. — 
This is very objectionable, as it indicates immaturitj^, poor 
constitution, and poor feeding value. 




Fig. 73. — Finest corn in the world. Tliepe ten ears won a thousand-dollar prize 
at Omaha in llfliS. (..Agricultural Education.) 



11. Proportion of Corn to Cob. — Depth of kernels, size of 
cob, maturity, furrows and space at cob all affect the pro- 
portion. The corn may be selected and judged by those 
features. But if scales are available the proportion of corn 
is determined by weight. In determining the proportion 
of corn to cob, weigh and shell an average ear in the sample. 
Weigh the cob and subtract from the weight of the ear. 
This will give the weight of the corn; divide the weight of the 
corn by the total weight of ear, Avhich will give the per cent 
of corn. Per cent of corn should be from 86 to 87. For each 
per cent short of standard, a cut of one and one-half points 
should be made. 



138 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

SCORE CARD FOR CORN JUDGING. 



Perfect 
Score. 



1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics 10 

2. Shape of Ear 10 

3. Purity of Ear. (a) Grain 5 

(b) Cob 5 

4. VitaUty or Seed Conditions 15 

5. Tips 5 

6. Butts 5 

7. Kernels, (a) Uniformity 5 

(6) Shape 10 

8. Length of Ear 5 

9. Circumference of Ear 5 

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows 5 

(b) Space Between Tips of Kernels at Cob 5 

11. Proportion of Corn to Cob 10 

Total Points 100 



Testing Seed Corn. — No farmer can iafford to use corn 
for seed which is not the best he can get. It should be care- 
fully selected along the lines laid down in the rules given in 
this chapter. Then it should be subjected to a germination 
test of the individual ears. Any method that will enable a 
corn grower to know the percentage of germination of each 
individual ear of corn can be used to make the test. If you 
test five kernels taken from different parts of an ear of corn 
and two of them do not germinate and three do, it is a pretty 
good indication that sixty per cent of the kernels of the ear 
will grow and forty per cent will not. This means that four 
hundred out of a possible one thousand kernels of that ear 
will fail if planted in the field. The farmer using such corn 
for seed would get only a sixty per cent stand, which means 
a very poor crop. He would waste two days out of every 
five spent in cultivating such a field, because two-fifths of 
the field would be bare ground. 

How to Test. — The ears of corn may be tested as clearly 
shown in Fig. 74. First arrange a germination box; any 
shallow flat box will do; place in it some clean wet sand or 
wet sawdust to a depth of about one inch ( Fig. 75 ) . 



CORN 



131) 



Mark off squares two by two inches with a black lead j^encil 
on white cloth; number these squares 1, 2, 3, etc.; wet the 
cloth and spread it over the wet sawdust so the numbers 
are in plain view. Next number all the ears of corn by using 




Fig. 74. — A box tester for seed corn. IToon muslin clotli squares are drawn and 
numbered. On each square are laid five kernels from an ear of the same number. 
When the tester is filled, the sawdust sliown at the left is placed to keep the grain moist. 

little squares of paper, which are held to the butt end of the 
ears with small nails pushed through the numbered papers 
and then into the cobs. Now take five kernels from different 
parts of each ear, not using any from near the tip nor butt. 




Fig. 75. — A. Testing indi% id\ial ears of seed com by the moist cloth method. 
The tray is ready to he covered with another wet cloth and moist sawdust. 
B. The tray of corn shown in Fig. A. 



Put the five kernels from the first ear on the first square of 
cloth, and so on for the rest of the ears (Fig. 75). It is well 
to place the germ sides upward so the sprouts will show well 
afterwards. Cover the kernels with a plain wet cloth and 



140 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



spread over it a layer of wet sawdust. Keep the box in a 
warm room for two weeks or less, keeping it damp all the time. 




Fig. 76. — Germination test of corn, showing liealthy and weak germination. (Agri- 
cultural Education.) 

The Results. — Raise the top cloth and thus remove the 
upper layer of sawdust. Look over the germination cloth 
and see what ears fail to give a perfect result. These should 
be removed and not used for seed (Fig. 76) . 



CORN CULTURE. 

Preparing the Soil. — The best corn growers insist on the 
early plowing of the ground for corn, unless it was fall plowed. 
It should be plowed a month or six weeks before the date of 
planting. If the ground was in sod, the disc harrow may be 
used soon after the plow. During the balance of the time the 
smoothing harrow should be used every ten days or soon 
after each heavy rain. This is to prevent the crusting of 
the ground and the loss of moisture. Each harrowing of the 
ground helps to keep the moisture in the soil where it will 
be ready for the roots of the corn next summer when the dry 
weather sets in. 

In regions where the soil is heavy the field should be well 
stirred up again just before planting, using a spring-tooth 
harrow, disc harrow or a pulverizer set very deep. 



CORN 



141 



Methods of Planting. — Corn is usually planted either 
by hand-power planters or horse-power planters. The depth 
to plant varies with the quality and moisture of the soil. 
In a moist clay loam one inch is deep enough; but in a dry, 
sandy soil three or four inches is better. 

Exercise. — Depth to Plant Corn. — Plant corn at several 
different depths in two kinds of soil, one rather dry and 
sandy, the other heavy and rather moist ( Fig. 77 ) . These 
should be in two separate bottles or boxes. 
In each case, note the time required for 
the young plants to reach the surface. 

Distances for Planting. — There are 
three ways of planting for three different 
purposes. 

If we plan to cut the crop for green 
forage, to feed in summer when pastures 
become dry and short, we should drill the 
corn in rows so the stalks will stand three 
or four inches apart all along the rows. 
This plan will produce an immense ton- 
nage of green feed for summer use, but 
the yield of ears will be light. (See 
Chap. VI.) A southern white variety 
would be good for this purpose. 

If we want the crop to cut in Septem- 
ber for winter fodder or ensilage it is well 
to have the stalks about a foot apart in the rows. This will 
result in the greatest total yield of nutrients in the stalks 
and ears. A good variety for this purpose would be one 
which would ripen in the region where planted. 

The third plan is to have the stalks stand three in a hill 
and hills three feet apart in the row, with rows four feet apart 
or a little less. This is the plan followed in the great corn 
region of the middle West. Usually the hills are in rows both 
ways for greater ease of cultivation. The so-called hill plan 




Fig. 7 7. — Corn 
planted at different 
depths to show time 
required for sprouting 
and vigor after sprout- 
ing. (Agricultural Edu- 
cation.) 



142 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

or check-row plan gives the greatest yields of ear corn. These 
are not real hills, as corn should not be hilled up. There are 
good local varieties in different sections. These usually prove 
better for the locality than any other from a distance. 

Tillage. — As soon as the seed is planted we can use the 
smoothing harrow and continue to use it after each heavy 
rain as soon as the soil loses its sticky character. Have no 
fear of injuring the little corn plants except in the early morn- 
ing when the plants are too full of moisture, or in very stony 
fields. If this system of harrowing the corn after it is up is 
followed, there will be very few weeds to be seen in the field. 
It is much faster wqrk to harrow the field, taking several rows 
at a time, than it is to use the cultivator, one row at a time. 

When the corn is high enough so the cross-bars of the 
harrow tend to break off the plants, use a weeder or a fine- 
toothed cultivator a number of times to keep a fine soil- 
mulch on the field. If the weather conditions should be such 
as to keep the cultivator out of the field too long at a time, 
the ground will form a crust. Then it will be necessary to 
make the cultivator teeth go deep enough to break up and 
pulverize the crust. But when no crust is formed always 
keep the shovels or teeth quite shallow (Fig. 78). 

Harvesting Seed Corn.^It pays the farmer well to select 
his own seed corn. This is best done in the fall, just before 
frost and before harvesting the main crop. Such ears are 
selected as have the characters described in the rules given, 
pages 133-137. Pick out the ones that are most mature; 
they will be hanging downward. Take them from stalks 
which bear two or more good ears. 

Storing Seed Corn. — As soon as the ears are selected and 
gathered the husks should be entirely removed from them. 
Store the ears where the moisture will dry out well before 
winter, and where mice will not attack them. A good way is 
to tie the ears with cord in such a way that they will not touch 
each other and suspend each lot from a hook in the ceiling 



CORN 



143 



where mice will not bother the corn. Corn may be stored on 
sheets of finely woven wire netting which is tacked to the bare 
rafters or joists of a dry room, as a shop or attic. If there are 
vertical posts in the room, headless nails may be driven part 
way into the posts; and then the large ends of the ears are 
slipped over the nails (Fig. 79). 




Fio. 78. — Com plants half grown, showing the root system. Many small 
fibroua feeding roots are only a few inches under ground between the rows of corn. 
Deep cultivation is likely to destroy many of them. 

Harvesting the Main Crop. — To secure the best return 
from the corn crop the harvesting should include not only 
the ears but also the stalks. This should be done as soon as 



144 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



the ears are nearly ripe, after the kernels are hard. With 
most all field corn grown in the northern states the growth 
continues until about the time of the first fall frosts. 

There are several plans in use in various sections for the 
harvesting of the corn crop. 

1, The farmer can more nearly secure the entire value 
of the corn crop by cutting the whole stalks just at the proper 
time and putting it in the silo. The 
stalks and ears are run through a 
cutting machine (Fig. 80), and the 
finely cut forage is blown or taken by 
a carrier into a silo. This is called 
ensilage. For the making of good 
ensilage the corn crop should be well 
matured, the kernels glazed and 
well-dented, and the husks partially 
dried. 

2. In all dairy sections the stalks 
are usually saved and fed after the 
ears are removed. This is called 
stover. First the whole crop is cut, 
by hand or by machines, and put into 
shocks. This should be done before 
the leaves become brown and the 
stalks dry. The shocks are tied very 
tightly near the top to avoid weath- 
ering. Later the ears are husked from 
the shock, and the stover is tied in large bundles and stored 
under shelter. The husked ears are first put in piles on the 
ground and then hauled to the crib. 

3. Husking and shredding machines are often used in 
some sections. The corn fodder from the shocks, after it is 
well cured, is run through a machine which husks and snaps 
off the ears and shreds the stalks. This is one of the best 
ways to use the whole crop after it is cured. 




Fia. 79. — Corii-diying rack. 



CORN 



145 



4. Stripping the blades of corn before the ears are har- 
vested is quite common in some parts of the South. The labor 
is too great to compensate for the crop of forage thus secured. 

5. Topping is a name given to the practice, in some 
localities, of cutting the stalks just above the ears. This is 
as much labor as to cut and shock the whole crop. 




Fig. 80. — Silo filling. This silo is made from wooden staves and steel hoops, 
a structure common in the Eastern States. The ears and stalks are cut fine and 
carried up into the silo by the endless chain. 



6. In some sections the ears are husked from the stand- 
ing stalks late in fall or in winter. This is done by driving 
through the field with a wagon having a large box, into which 
the ears of corn are thrown by the men doing the husking. 
The stalks are wasted, but cattle are sometimes allowed to 
"pick over" the field and eat the ears that were skipped. A 
considerable amount of fodder is also eaten by the stock. 
10 



146 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



7. In some southern sections where the attacks of the 
grain weevils are bad, it has become the practice to jerk 
the ears and store them unhusked. The work required to 
jerk the corn and afterwards husk it is greater than husking 
from the standing stalks. But most of the jerked corn is 
fed to stock without husking. 




Fig. 81. — A prize-winning field of corn in Virginia and the boy who grew it. 
used the correct methods. (O. B. Martin, Plant Industry.) 

Storing the Ears. — Corn should be stored in a crib with 
slatted sides to allow the air to circulate freely. The roof 
should be broad, and rain proof, to keep the corn entirely 
free from external moisture. Corn should be kept on the cob, 
at least until it is thoroughly dry, to prevent heating and 
molding. It is best to protect the crib of corn from mice, 
rats, and sparrows. For this purpose the floor and sides 
of the crib are sometimes covered with galvanized wire 
netting of about one-fourth-inch mesh. 



CORN 



147 



Storing the Stover. — Corn stalks intended for feed should 
not be exposed for a long time to the weather. Corn thus 
exposed loses much of its feeding value. It is much better 
to put it under shelter in barns or in sheds. The corn stalks 




Fig. 82. — The same boy as in Fig. 81 in his neighbor's field the same day. 
the "cornfields, (O. B. Martin, Plant Industry.) 



Compare 



should be thoroughly dried before storing for winter. If the 
fall weather be very damp, much care must be exercised 
to prevent the stover from heating in the sheds. When corn 
stover has been shredded, it is sometimes stored in layers 
alternating with dry straw. ' 



REVIEW. 

1. Briefly describe the preparation of ^oil for corn planting. 

2. Give brief directions for the planting of corn for summer green 
feed. 

3. Give distances for planting corn to be used as winter forage or 
ensilage. 

4. What is meant by "hill" corn ? What is its chief use ? 

5. Name four types of corn grown in America. 

6. Describe flint corn. 

7. Describe dent corn. 

8. Tell when to select corn for seed 



148 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

9. Describe the best shape of ears of field com. 

10. What things indicate purity of corn ? 

11. Give the points which indicate vitaUty, besides the test. 

12. Describe good tips and butts of ears of corn. 

13. Why should the kernels be uniform in shape ? 

14. Describe the best shape and give the reasons. 

15. Why should ears of corn for seed be uniform in length and cir- 
cumference ? 

16. Why do we object to deep furrows between rows and open 
spaces between the tips of the kernels at the cob ? 

17. Name five things which aid in determining the proportion of 
corn to cob. 

18. Give two things to be considered when storing seed corn. 

19. Give three good ways of storing seed corn. 

20. Give a good reason for the individual ear method of testing com. 

21. Describe a seed testing cloth and box for that purpose. 

22. How would you keep the ears from being mixed during the 
testing time ? 

23. Tell how to select the kernels that are to be put into the tester. 

24. What use may be made of the ears which do not show perfect 
germination ? 

25. Mention several methods of harvesting the main crop of corn. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins relating to corn: 
229, The Production of Good Seed Corn; 272, A Successful Hog and 
Seed-corn Farm; 292, Cost of Filling Silos; 298, Food Value of Corn 
and Corn Products; 303, Corn Harvesting Machinery; 313, Harvesting 
and Storing Corn; 325, Small Farms in the Corn Belt; 385, Boys' and 
Girls' Agricultvu-al Clubs; 400, A More Profitable Corn-planting Method; 
409, School Lessons on Corn; 414, Corn Cultivation; 415, Seed Corn. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
SMALL GRAINS. 



Wheat. — ^Wheat is probably the oldest grain used by 
man. It is more extensively grown and used than any other 
human food except perhaps rice. When flour is made from 
it the by-products are now extensively used to feed animals. 
In America the newer lands in some portions of the West 
produce the largest crops of wheat, but the grain is grown 
somewhat in all sections. 

Types of Wheat.^ — As a general rule, the drier regions of 
the middle West produce hard winter wheat or hard spring 
wheat, best for flour; the humid climates produce soft wheats. 



SMALL GRAINS 



149 



Varieties are also classified by the heads, as bearded and 
beardless or smooth (Fig. 83). As to color of grain they may 
be (1) white or yellowish, and (2) red varieties. 

Soil. — The heavy clay loams are best for wheat growing 
but medium loams are also used. Heavy soils are cool and 
hold their moisture better than lighter soils. The kernels 
will not develop fully, or "fill," if the soil is too light. 




Fig. 83. — Three types of wheat niounteil under glass on cotton. Bearded wheat 
on the right ; the others are smooth ; square-head wlieat on left. 



Preparation and Planting. — The soil is usually plowed in 
the early fall, whether it be for winter or for spring wheat. 
It is important that the bottom soil be well packed down 
before the grain is sown. For fall seeding the ground may be 
rolled and then harrowed again to secure the desired con- 
dition of seed bed. 



loO PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

The time to plant varies considerably in different sec- 
tions. In Canada and the northern tier of States the spring 
wheats are usually used and are sown as early in the spring 
as the soil can be prepared. Winter wheat is more common 
in the other States and is sown early enough in the fall to 
let the young plants make a good growth before winter. 

A grain drill is usually used for the sowing of wheat. This 
gives a better stand than broadcasting or soAving by hand, 
as the seed is evenly distributed and well covered. The 
amount of seed per acre varies — according to soil, quality 
of seed and manner of seeding — from one and a half to three 
bushels. 

Heavy seed wheat should always be selected for seeding. 
The plump, full kernels will give much better results than 
slender shrunken seed (Fig. 9). The legal weight in all States 
is sixty pounds per bushel. That used for seed should weigh 
this much or more if possible. 

Harvesting. — Wheat is ripe when the kernels have passed 
the dough or soft stage. The kernels should be examined 
before the cutting is made. Cut before there is danger of 
the grain shattering out of the head. 

Much progress has been made in the improvement of 
machines used for harvesting grain. The cutting and binding 
into bundles is done with a self-binder (Fig. 84) . Then the 
grain is put into small shocks of about a dozen bundles. 
Here it remains in the field for a week or two to "cure." 
It is then ready to thresh or to put in stacks. 

In the driest regions of the West the grain is headed and 
threshed immediately. Heading is cutting the stems just 
below the grain heads with special machines made for that 
method of harvesting. 

Oats. — Oats grow farther north than corn or wheat. 
They like a cool moist climate, and have been grown in the 
cooler parts of the Old World for centuries. They are now 
produced in Canada and most of the States of the Union. 



SMALL GRAINS 151 

Oats make one of the best feeds for horses, and when ground 
are used for other farm stock. Oatmeal in the form of rolled 
oats forms a good human food. Oat straw is better for stock 
than the straw of other cereals. 

Soil. — Oats will grow on soils that are rather too poor 
for wheat, but they thrive best on the richer soils. Heavier 
crops of grain are produced if the soil is heavy. The crop 
responds well to good applications of fertilizer, if too much 
nitrogen is not used. Too much nitrogen in the soil produces 
tall growth and little grain. 




Fig. 84. — A modem grain har\-ester. All small grains are cut and bound into 

bundles by this macliine. llie tying part of the machine is one of the greatest 
inventions of modern times. 



Preparation. — Good plowing and harrowing are advisable 
before the crop is sown. The lower soil of the seed bed 
should be well packed down if the plowing is done only a 
short time before seeding. In some sections the soil is merely 
stirred with a disc harrow instead of plowing. This custom 
prevails in the middle West, when oats are sown the next 
year after corn. A more thorough preparation if the soil 
is heavy usually gives larger yields. 

Seeding is done in very early spring throughout the 
Northern States and Canada. In the South oats are started 
in the fall. The seeding may be either broadcast or with grain 



152 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

drills. Two or three bushels of seed are used per acre, 
according to fertility and method of seeding. Very heavy 
seed should be selected. Thirty- two pounds is the legal 
weight of a bushel of oats in all States except Virginia, New 
Jersey, Idaho, and Maryland. The grain selected for seed 
should be as heavy as thirty-eight or forty pounds per 
bushel. 

Harvesting. — There is a little less danger of the oats 
shattering from the heads when cut than there is with wheat; 
but in general the same condition of maturity should be 
secured. The grain is cut and bound with self-binders and 
then placed in shocks, where it is left for several weeks to 
thoroughly dry out before threshing. 

Barley. — There are several types or varieties of barley 
grown in America, which may be grouped as two-row, four- 
row, and six-row; the numbers referring to the rows of grain 
on the heads. The two-row barley is more common in Europe 
and the six-row more common in America. Most all varieties 
have hulls on the grain, but hulless varieties are sometimes 
grown. 

Barley adapts itself to a wide range of climate, as the 
time required for maturing a crop is very short. It is found 
wherever any of the other cereals are grown. 

Soil and Its Preparation. — Barley thrives best on well- 
drained, rich, sandy loam. The soil is prepared as for oats 
and the times for seeding in different sections is about the 
same. 

Rye. — Rye is less used for bread making than wheat in 
America, but in some parts of the Old World the reverse 
is the case. The flour there is cheaper, as it is much darker 
than wheat flour. Rye grows somewhat taller than wheat 
and thus produces more straw. The straw has a commercial 
value for packing purposes. 

Culture.- — Rye will grow in any region adapted to wheat 
raising, and is grown even farther north than wheat. It does 



SMALL GRAINS 



153 



fairly well on poor soils but the rich loams are better for the 
crop. When the crop is wanted for grain and for straw the 
methods of culture are practically the same as for wheat. 

Rye is often sown in summer to serve as a winter cover 
crop, and the green growth is plowed under in spring to serve 
as green manure in the improvement of soils. 




Fig. 85. — A good way to tie up small grains and grasses for exhibits. No. 2 had 
no fertilizer, No. 3 had poorly kept manure, 4 fresh manure, 8 nitrate of soda. 



Exercise. — Samples of Grains. — Let pupils bring from 
their homes or from their stores small samples of wheat, rye, 
oats and barley. There may be poor and good samples in 
the collection. These may be placed in bottles with suitable 
labels. Extra fine samples may be secured by the teacher 
for a school collection at local fairs or other expositions. 

Exercise. — Heads of Grains. — Make a collection for 
the school of all the forms of heads of the different kinds 
of grain that are grown near by. Preserve these in a bed of 



154 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

cotton in shallow pasteboard boxes with glass over them, 
secured by binding strips (Fig. 83). A method of preparing 
samples for school fairs is shown in Fig. 85. 

REVIEW. 

1. Tell what you can of the different types of wheat. 

2. Tell of the preparation of the soil and times for drilling in wheat. 

3. What is the legal weight of wheat ? Why should seed wheat be 
heavier, if possible ? 

4. Describe the appearance of good seed wheat. 

5. What is a self-binder? What is a header? What is a thresher? 

6. What are the chief uses for oats ? 

7. Give directions for the seeding of oats. 

8. Name three types of barley. Which is most grown in America? 

9. Where may rye be grown ? 

10. How does rye flour differ from wheat flour ? 

11. What soils are suited to the growing of rye ? 

12. Describe the use of rye as a green manure. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins : 395, Sixty Day and Kherson 
Oats; 399, Irrigation of Grain; 420, Oats: Distribution and Uses; 424, 
Oats: Growing the Crop; 427 and 443, Barley. 



CHAPTER XV. 
POTATOES. 



Irish Potatoes. — This is a very common crop on the farms 
throughout the United States and Canada. Many millions of 
bushels are produced and used chiefly as human food. 

Origin and Type. — The potato is a native of America. 
The first colonists found the Indians growing it. In many 
places it is called the white potato to distinguish it from the 
yellow sweet potato. It is widely known as the Irish potato 
because of its general use in Ireland. There are now a great 
many varieties, and new names are annually appearing in 
the seed catalogues. These are chiefly of two types, viz., 
early potatoes and late potatoes. These differ only in the 
time required to mature the crop from the time of planting. 
Early varieties are planted as soon as the ground can be 



POTATOES 155 

worked in spring and are harvested as soon as possible for 
early market. Late varieties are planted late in May or 
early in June and are left in the ground to full maturity and 
are then sold or stored for winter. 

Soil.^ — The best soil for the potato is a rich, sandy loam, 
well drained and well supplied with vegetable matter. A 
soil heavier than this may be used if it is improved by green 
manuring and drainage. The lighter soils should be greatly 
enriched by the addition of green manures and fertilizers. 
Potatoes should be alternated or rotated with other crops 
on the field, not continuously grown on the same land. 

Barnyard manure for potato fields should be well rotted 
or may be applied to the soil for the preceding crop, such as 
corn. Commercial fertilizers are commonly applied at the 
time the potatoes are planted. 

Green Manure. — A green manure to plow under in the 
early spring may be started in the field of corn or other crop 
the preceding summer. Sow the seed in July or early August, 
using a mixture of rye, winter vetch and crimson clover. 
These plants will serve as a winter cover crop and when 
plowed under will quickly decay and form humus. 

Plowing should be done in the spring not long before the 
potatoes are to be planted. It must be deep and thorough 
as the potatoes require a loose bed for growth. The newlj^- 
plowed ground must not be packed with a roller, but should 
be smoothed with a common harrow. 

Cutting Seed. — The seed pieces are cut in many different 
ways, with one or two eyes to a piece being the most common. 
Experiments have shown that in cutting the tubers quarters 
will give larger crop yields. Before cutting the tubers 
should be soaked for two hours in a solution of one pint of 
full strength formalin in thirty-two gallons of water; this 
is to prevent the scab disease from getting into the soil. 

Planting. — Early potatoes may be planted as early in 
the spring as the soil can be prepared. Late potatoes should 



15(5 



rUODUCTlVE FARMING 



he pliintt'd in May or curly .Iiiru'. The (Top suffers when dry 
wcutluir comes on. TIk; time of pluntinji; sliould be planned 
to brins tlu; time when the tubers are formirifj; at a period 
wh(ui tlie rainfall is usually ^ood. 

Then; are seviu'al j^ood nu^thods of ])lantin{j; potatoes; 
these vary accordinfj; to climate and soil. In wet or heavy 
soil they may be plant<'d only thre(; inches d(M^p; in the 
lighter soils or when the weather is hot and dry the tubers 
may be i)lanted as deep as six inches. 




Fl(i. 8(>. — DiKKiiiK ixilnloi's Iiy iih<> of :i iii.iclii iic :tiiil four liorsf'H. Mi-n, woiiicn iiiiJ 
I'liililicii Hdiiu'liiiK^H piilv up (lie pol.itofS lifter tli<^ iiuicliiiii'. 



Distances for .Planting Potatoes vary somewhat in dif- 
ferent, potato districts. Very (H)mmonly the rows are three 
ieci apart and tlu^ seed-pieces are twelves or ei{i;hteen inches 
apart in the rows. 'JVn bushels of seed potatoes are recjuired 
to i)la.nt an acre, at distances one and a half by three fe(^t, if 
llu^ ])ieces \v('if2;h one ounc^e each. 

Cultivation. — After the planting is done the field should 
be harrowed. After this fr(>(|uent shallow cultivations are 
made until (he vines are so larji;e (hat they shade tlu> soil 
well. A lifiht ridf>;inf»; of the soil towards the rows at the time 
of the last cultivation is usually i)ra(!ticed, the ])urpose being 
to i)revent the new tubers from growing out of the ground. 



POTAIOKS 



IT)? 



Harvesting. — T^arKo potato fields arc usually du^ by uso 
of maciiiiK's drawn by horses (KIk- X'>)- ()n<' of tlu^ smaller 
forniB is shown in Fiji;. 87. Larger machines cN^vatc the 
tubers, shake; off th(; dirt, and drop them on tlu; fj;roun(l. 
They are drawn by three or four horses. Siruill fj;arden 
pat(^hes are dug by hand tools. 

Weights and Yields. The lep;al wei}i;lit of a busluil of 
potatoes is sixty pounds, ex(!e[)t in ]*ennsylvania and Vir- 
ginia, where the weiglit is fifl-y-six pounds. The yields are 
often two hujidn'd ;md fifty bushels or more j)er acn;, but 




J'KJ. 87.— Ai 



( I'luiil liicluhlry.) 



the average is about one hundred bushels per acre. The 
valu(! of the crop in the United States each year is about 
$1 ()(),()( )(),0()(). 

Sweet Potatoes. The sweet potato is grown to a limited 
extent in nearly all the Northern States, but the best (piali- 
ties and largest quantities arc produced in the Southern 
States. Th(? f)lant is of tropical origin. 

Soil.— Sweet potatoes thrive best on a rather sandy 
loam which does not contain too much of organic matter. 
Soils that are too poor for the production of most other 
farm crops may suit, sweet j)otatoes very well. 

Starting the Plants. — New plants are started in (^arly 



158 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

spring from seed potatoes. The whole potatoes are planted 
in fine, rich sandy loam in hot-beds (Figs, 88, 89). These 
may be heated either by manure or by fuel. The tempera- 
ture at first is kept at 80° or 85° F. Before the plants are 
pulled from this bed to be transplanted to the field the 
temperature is gradually lowered to 60° F, The growth in 
the hot-l^ed roquires about six weeks. 




Fig. 88. — Sweet potatoes in a hot-bed ready to be covered. They will produce 
young plants for field planting. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 

In the Field. — The soil is prepared as for corn — the sur- 
face being left smooth and even. In some places the farmers 
ridge the field and set the plants on the ridges. Others 
practice the level culture. Planting in the field should be 
done when the soil is moist enough to produce a rapid growth 
after setting the young plants. Where level culture is prac- 
ticed the plants are often set two or two and one-half feet 
each way. Where ridges are made the rows are often three 
and one-half feet apart and the plants fourteen to eighteen 



POTATOES 



159 



inches apart in the rows, requiring over 8000 plants per 
acre. The plants are set in the ground by hand, by tongs, 
or by large machine planters. 

Cultivation is simple and does not last long as the vines 
soon cover the ground. Large weeds are usually pulled by 
hand or cut with hoes. 

Harvesting is done before cold weather. The vines must 
be cut loose from the hills before they are frozen to prevent 
injury of the crop. There are special plows, similar to Fig. 
87, for digging sweet potatoes. Small areas are often dug 
with spading forks. 




Fig. 89. — A single sweet potato from the hot-bed, showing many young sprouts. 
Note the difference in the size of young plants. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



Storage is necessary if the crop is not sold immediately. 
Special pits and heated buildings are constructed for storing 
sweet potatoes. The roots must be handled with the greatest 
care to avoid bruising them if they are to be stored. When 
first put into storage they go through a "sweating" or curing 
process; this requires a temperature of 85° or 90° F. After 
that the temperature is kept at 55° to 65° F. A great deal of 
ventilation is required to keep the place perfectly dry. 



160 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



REVIEW. 

1. Where was the Irish potato first found ? 

2. What kinds of soils are best suited to potato growing ? 

3. Describe the growing of a green manure crop for a potato field. 

4. Give directions for plowing for potatoes. 

5. Tell of the times for planting early and late potatoes. 

6. Give depths for planting; also distances for planting. 

7. Give directions for treating potato seed to keep scab disease 
out of the soil. 

8. What is the legal weight for a bushel of potatoes in your State ? 

9. What is the usual yield in bushels per acre ? 

10. In what climates and on what soils are sweet potatoes chiefly 
grown? 

11. Describe the starting of sweet potato plants for a large field. 

12. Give directions for setting them in the field. 

13. Tell how sweet potatoes are stored for winter. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 35, Potato Culture; 91, 
Potato Diseases; 324, Sweet Potatoes; 365, Farm Management in 
Northern Potato-growing Sections; 386, Potato Culture on Irrigated 
Farms; 407, The Potato as a Truck Crop; 342, Potato Breeding, pp. 10-14. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY. 

Forest .products in America are not as generally con- 
sidered a part of the permanent resources of the farm as 
they should be. The chief products are lumber, posts, poles, 
railroad ties, and fuel. Thus far lumber, ties, and poles have 
been obtained mainly from native forests. These are rapidly 
becoming exhausted. In the prairie States firewood and 
posts are obtained from plantings made by man, but else- 
where chiefly from the native woods. 

Forestry should become a systematic part of many farms 
in all the prairie States as well as in the States where tim- 
ber was originally found. 

Tree planting is naturally considered under two heads: 
(1) Prairie planting may be for ornament, windbreaks, 
shelter-belts, and wood-lots or groves for wood, poets and 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 161 

lumber. (2) Forest planting, which is primarily for the 
revenue to be derived from the sale of wood and lumber. 

It is a special problem in the management of each indi- 
vidual farm to decide just what planting should be done. 
The Forestry Service of the United States Department of 
Agriculture offers to give practical assistance to tree planters 
in deciding these questions. Circular 22 of that service 
should be read in this connection. Careful study should be 
given to the planting of trees under some good system, as 
a forest is the most permanent thing that can be planted 
on a farm. 

Need of Forest Planting. — Forests are necessary to the 
highest material development of any country. The climatic 
influences are very beneficial. It is desirable in behalf of 
the public welfare to plant trees in great number. This is 
true both on the treeless plains and also on the sites of de- 
stroyed forests. To be of most public benefit the planting 
should be well distributed over the region. All will share 
the benefits and all should join in planting the trees. 

Forest Influences. — Growing trees conserve moisture, 
modify climatic extremes, and purify the air. Careful 
observation shows that large trees growing in a grove affect 
climatic and soil conditions in several ways: 

1. During the day the ground under the trees is protected 
from the sun's rays and is therefore cooler than soil not 
protected. The air circulating over this cool soil tends to 
cool the air in the immediate vicinity on sunny days. 

2. At night the trees retard the loss of heat from the 
ground under them. This tends to equalize the temperature 
of not only the soil and air under the tree but that in the 
near vicinity. The soil and air are kept cooler by day and 
warmer by night. This equalizing of temperature is notice- 
able during short periods of very hot or very cold weather. 
Gardens growing near trees are sometimes uninjured by 
fall frosts which kill tender plants in other gardens. 

11 



16^ PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

3. The drying out of soil is also prevented by the mulch 
of leaves and twigs which fall to the ground under the trees. 
Trees and leaves check the flow of water over the land, thus 
preventing the washing away of good soil. The soil is not so 
badly beaten down by heavy rains. The water soaks into 
the soil better and the flow-off is very gradual. 

4. By breaking the force of the wind trees will aid in 
retaining moisture in the surface soil near the trees. The 
evaporation decreases as the wind is checked. Water is also 
held better in the soil shaded by the trees. A large amount 
of water which the trees give off from their leaves is drawn 
from the subsoil, without drawing on the water of the surface 
.soil. This moisture from the leaves increases the amount 

in the surrounding air. Trees which have the roots near 
the surface, as the elm and red maple, take up so much water 
near the surface as to make it unwise to try to grow crops 
near them. 

5. The destructive force of severe winds is often prevented 
by trees. Tornadoes may be prevented or made of little 
effect by large groups of trees. Certain crops may be grown 
when protected by shelter-belts of trees that could not other- 
wise be grown on the prairie. These shelters from high winds 
prevent the blowing of soils. They lessen the severity of 
cold winter winds both for stock and for people. 

How Trees Influence Water Supply. — The proper dis- 
tribution of water upon the land is the most important factor 
in the growing of crops. In the natural course of the seasons 
we have both floods and droughts. The proper holding of 
the water from flood-time to drought is best accomplished 
by the growth of trees and the protection of natural forests 

Rain falling upon forested areas flows away slowly. 
Springs and streams are kept constantly supplied from the 
water of such areas. 

Instead of the waters of the rainy season producing heavy 
floods and causing much destruction along the courses of 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 163 

streams the water is greatly retarded and no flood is expe- 
rienced. The water from heavy rains is held back by the 
carpet of leaves on the soil beneath the trees, by the roots 
in the soil, and by the decaying matter from former years. 

In sections where the forests have been cut off for the 
use of man, the streams frequently go dry during the sununer. 
Water power of mills and factories is thus cut off; the water 
supply for homes, villages, and cities is reduced to the danger 
point. Navigation of the larger streams is checked or stopped 
for a while. Many wells are without drinking water because 
the level of the soil water is deeper than the wells. 

The growth of forests would correct the difficulty of water 
supply in many parts of the country. The United States 
Government has reserved large areas of mountainous and 
hilly land for the purpose of preserving the natural forests and 
maintaining the flow of the larger streams in those sections. 

Forest Planting on the Farm. — The wood-lot or forest 
plantation on a farm where the land is all tillable should 
usually be in the form of a wide shelter-belt. If there be 
rough land on the farm not suitable for the more common 
crops, groves may be maintained on this to good advantage. 
On land too stony or too steep for use of other crops some 
kinds of trees will grow well. The location of such groves is 
to be determined by natural conditions. 

The location of the wide shelter-belts will be influenced 
by several things. These trees may affect the air drainage 
of near-by orchards; the wind currents will be controlled; 
and the humidity of the air about the home will be influenced. 

Such trees should be far enough from the buildings and 
roadways to not cause the drifting of snows which would be 
in the way. The shelter-belt should be about six rods wide, 
made up of a number of lines or rows of trees with the smaller 
kinds on the side toward the prevailing wind. This will 
deflect the wind currents upward and prevent their bad 
effects. 



164 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Make the belts of trees several rods wide, because single 
rows of trees or narrow belts are less profitable when we 
consider the relative amount of land used. 

Shelter-belts should be planted on the side of the pre- 
vailing winds. In some places this is on the southwest side 
of the group of farm buildings to protect the premises from 
hottest winds of summer. The coldest winds of winter will 
be checked by planting trees along the north and northwest. 
Probably the planting of belts along the north and west 
sides would be best in most cases. 

In prairie countries and in dry climates the shelter-belts 
should be used to protect fields of crops from both the blast- 
ing winds of summer and the storms of winter. 

Kinds of Trees. — There has always been a tendency in 
the prairie States to plant trees that would grow quickly. 
These are not the best kinds because, as a rule, they are 
short-lived and the plantation is soon gone. The more 
permanent kinds of trees should be chosen. 

The revenue to be derived from the sale of fuel, posts, 
poles, and lumber should be considered in the choice of 
varieties. Chestnut groves have often paid a good return 
for their cost in the nuts produced for market. Walnut is 
a slower growing wood than cottonwood, but when mature 
will return a much larger income for each year of its growth. 
Trees with deep root systems should be chosen if the trees 
are to grow near other crops, as the surface soil will not be 
dried out so fast. Such trees would be walnut, hickory, 
hardy catalpa, chestnut, locust, and others. All of these 
have valuable woods. 

Propagation of Forest Trees. — Nearly all kinds of forest 
trees are propagated by seeds. Willows and a few others 
are easily increased by cuttings. 

The seeds for planting should be mature and as freshly 
gathered as possible. It is quite difficult to germinate some 
tree seeds that are very old and dry. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 



165 



The nuts of black walnut, hickory, chestnut, and others, 
and the pits of the plum, peach, and cherry should be either 
spread between layers of moist sand or planted in the fall 
where they are to grow. They should not be allowed to dry 
out after ripening. The larger nuts may be planted while 
doing shallow plowing, by dropping them in a furrow and 
covering them with the next furrow slice. 

The deep root system formed by most of the true nut- 
bearing trees makes them difficult to transplant, even when 



\ouna; 




Fig. 90. — Lattice supporter I - mate light and 

shade in growing forest seedlings, tobat-c-o, ginseng, and a few other plants. 

(.Plant Industry.) 

Seeds that ripen in spring and early summer should be 
planted within a few weeks, as they live but a short time. 
The American elm, soft maple, and cottonwood are examples 
of this group, but the red elm is an exception, as the seeds 
will not sprout until the next spring. 

Seeds of trees that ripen in the fall, except the evergreens, 
may be planted either the same fall or the following spring. 
If planted in the fall they should be covered with a leaf 
mulch and also protected from squirrels and other animals. 

The cone-bearing trees, including the pine, spruce, tama- 
rack, and white cedar are started from seed sown, in the 



166 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



spring under partial shade. This partial shade may be made 
by a lattice work supported on poles (Fig. 90). Rather sandy 
soil is best for the starting of these seeds, which are planted 
very shallow. They may be sown either broadcast or thickly 
in drills with the rows close together. 

Before young trees of any of the kinds become too crowded 
in the seed beds they should be transplanted. If they are 
too small to be used in the forest plantation they are put in 
rows far enough apart to cultivate in a 
forest nursery. It is a very common 
practice to keep young trees in the forest 
nursery for one or more years. 

Exercise. — Starting Tree Seeds. — Col- 
lect from the woods, or buy from a seed 
store, seeds of ash, birch, hard maple, and 
box elder. Plant them in a window box 
in loose black soil, covering them to a 
depth of about one inch. Moisten the 
soil from time to time and observe the 
time required for germination of each 
kind. Note the methods they have of 
coming out of the soil. How many seed- 
leaves have they ? (Fig. 91.) 
Distances Apart for Trees. — The Forest Service recom- 
mends that in a wood-lot or forest plantation most trees be 
set four feet apart each way. It is the aim to get the soil 
shaded by the trees as soon as possible, and to use all the 
space for tree growth after the first year. The first year 
a low-growing crop requiring cultivation may be planted in 
the rows with the young trees. Potatoes may be used for 
this purpose one season only. 

Another plan followed in some forest planting is to plant 
the trees two feet apart in the rows with eight feet between 
the rows. In this plan the space between rows may be used 
for other cultivated crops for several years. The trees can 




Fig. 91. — Young 
maple -tree seedling 
showing the first seed- 
leaves still clinging. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 



167 



be cultivated for a much longer period than where they are 
only four feet apart. 

Mixed plantings are made by setting alternate rows of 
two or three varieties. There are a number of advantages 
derived from the mixing of the trees instead of planting only 
one kind (Fig. 92) : 




i"«r .*•»*-_?. 



<H,f 



Fig. 92. — A shelter-belt of mi xpc I hard \v.i,„i-. 11ii~ form ,.f f, , 
forest from grazing stuclv. (.Plant liulustry.) 



itect the 



1. There is less danger of total loss from drought, insects, 
and diseases. 

2. Rapid-growing trees may temporarily fill the area 
while the slower and more permanent ones are becoming 
large enough. 



168 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



3. Tender kinds, such as Scotch pine, do much better 
when partially protected by more hardy trees. 

4. Mixed plantings are more beautiful and interesting. 

5. Birds are attracted by the greater variety of food and 
shelter. 

6. The ground is usually better shaded by mixed planting. 
Tall trees with thin foliage, such as maple and birch, may be 



Fig. 93. 



Fig. 94. 




Fig. 93. — A pine tree growing in an open place, holding llic leaves out to the 
light. 

Fig. 94. — Pines and other trees grown in a dense forest, which is now mostly 
cleared away. 



alternated with those which have dense foliage and can 
endure shade well, such as spruce and beech. 

Exercise. — Distance Apart and Shape. — In a wood-lot 
or other place where trees are growing close together, notice 
the distance from the ground to the first side limbs that are 
beneath the shade of other trees (Fig. 94). Compare these 
with trees of the same kind growing in open places. In a 
dense forest the side limbs are shaded from the light and 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 



169 



may soon die and drop ojff. Those in the open grow large 
because of the light all about them (Fig. 93). Which would 
produce clear lumber and which would be knotty? 

Exercise. — Rings of Wood. — Have some one bring to 
school a circular section cut across the end of a tree trunk, 




Fig. 95. — Method of mounting wood samples for study. (Agricultural Education.) 



showing the rings of wood. Each ring represents one season 
of growth. Count them. Are some wider than others ? 
Are the wide rings indications of favorable or of unfavorable 
seasons of growth ? Notice the dark heart-wood in the center 
and the light colored sap-wood near the bark. Figure 95 
represents a good method of saving samples for future study. 



170 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Planting the Trees. — When wood-lots and wide shelter- 
belts are to be planted, the ground should be prepared by 
plowing and harrowing, unless it is too rough or stony. 
The trees from the seed bed or forest nursery are transplanted 
to their new location when of suitable size. The size depends 
upon the kind and size of those with which they are to be 
planted. Evergreens may be transplanted whenever new 
shoots are not growing, but late spring is probably the best 
time. Early spring is best for other trees and shrubs. 

When very small seedlings are to be planted in great 
numbers, a small but deep opening is made by thrusting a 
narrow spade into the plowed soil and moving the handle 
back and forth. The spade is removed and the little tree 
roots pushed to the bottom of the hole. The soil is then 
pressed in about the roots and at the same time the little tree 
is lifted to make it of proper depth. This plan of planting 
is very rapid. 

Larger Trees must be planted with more care. The holes 
should be larger and deeper than the trees seem to require. 
Prune all broken or bruised roots. Prune off some of the 
top, to somewhat balance the reduced root surface. Place 
loose rich soil in the bottom to come in contact with the roots. 
The tree should be a little deeper in the ground than it was 
before. Fill the hole with the best soil and tramp it in well, 
but leave a layer of rather loose soil on the surface. 

Exercise. — Ai-bor Day Planting. — Plan for the planting 
of trees and shrubs on the school grounds on Arbor Day 
and other spring days. Have the places for planting each 
shrub or tree determined in advance. Study the principles 
laid down in the reference bulletins and in this book, to make 
the school grounds very beautiful. 

Ornamental Planting. — One of the best plans for the 
planting of trees on Eastern farms, and indeed everywhere, 
is to place them where they will lend a degree of beauty to 
the farm home. The appearance of the surroundings may 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 171 

be wonderfully improved by planting in suitable places a 
number of well chosen kinds of trees. 

Care and Management. — The farm wood-lot should be 
managed in such a way as to produce regular harvests of 
fuel, lumber, posts, and railroad ties, through a long series 
of years. Advancing prices of these materials make the 
wood-lot a very profitable part of the farm. 

In the proper management of the wood-lot there are a 
number of principles to be applied. Some of the most 
important are given here: 

1. In cutting the crop take those trees that are ripe, 
not the young or middle-aged ones. 

2. Save the small seedlings and saplings to renew the 
forest when the old trees are harvested. 

3. Take out the badly shaped and diseased trees and 
those of inferior kind. Such are called weeds, and may be 
used for fuel. 

4. Leave good specimens that are old enough to bear 
good crops of seed. These will naturally re-seed the wood-lot 
and keep it supplied with young growth. 

5. Usually the wood-lot should not be used as a pasture. 
This destroys the young trees and the future life of the 
forest. The leaf mulch is never good in a pasture. 

6. The stand of trees left at any time must be neither 
too thin nor too thick, as this affects the shape of the trees 
(Figs. 93, 94). 

7. Some kinds that send up shoots from the stumps, 
called coppice growth, must be thinned to avoid crowding. 
Catalpa, chestnut, locust, mulberry, osage orange, and others 
send up rapidly-growing coppice from the stumps. 

8. Trees damaged by storms should be harvested before 
insects and diseases attack them, as these often spread to 
healthier trees. 

9. Always pile up and burn the waste brush after each 
harvest. This will check the spread of insects, and reduce 
the danger from fire. 



172 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

10. Post up legal notices furnished by the State authorities 
to warn all campers and hunters against forest fires. 

11. Replant belts destroyed by fire or storm. 

Exercise. — Kinds of Trees. — Collect twigs of the ever- 
greens and other trees and have pupils name them for the 
class. They may learn the names at home or elsewhere if 
none in the class know them. Students should learn what 
ones are most valued for posts, for lumber, and other uses. 

REVIEW. 

1. What are some of the common uses to be derived from the farm 
wood-lot ? 

2. In what way is a forest of pubUc benefit ? 

3. Tell of the influence of a grove of trees on the temperature of 
the soil. 

4. How does a forest control soil moisture ? 

5. Why should homes be protected by trees ? 

6. How are streams affected when forests are cut off ? 

7. How does a forest help to prevent a flood ? 

8. On what sides of the farmstead should shelter-belts be grown ? 

9. What width is suggested for these shelter-belts? Why is one 
row of trees not the best ? 

10. What things must be considered in deciding what trees to plant ? 

1 1 . What tree seeds must be planted or put in moist sand in the fall? 

12. Which are planted in early summer? 

13. Tell when and how to start seeds of the cone-bearing trees. 

14. Give distances apart for planting trees in the wood-lot, and 
compare the two plans given. 

15. Mention several advantages of mixed planting. 

16. How does the distance apart affect the shape of trees? 

17. Tell how to plant small seedlings in the wood-lot. 

18. Describe the planting of a larger tree. 

19. How are wood-lots naturally re-seeded ? 

20. What are forest weeds ? What should be done with them ? 

21. Why not use the wood-lot as a pasture ? 

22. Mention one way of preventing forest insects and diseases. 

23. Mention two ways to help prevent forest fires. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 134, Tree Planting 
on Rural School Grounds; 173, Primer of Forestry, Part I, The Forest; 
262, Planting White Pine, pp. 31-32; 276, The Farm Wood-lot, pp. 
29-32; 358, Primer of Forestry, Part II, Practical Forestry; 423, Forest 
Nurseries for Schools. Circulars of the Bureau of Forestry, 22, 30, 36, 
97, 117, 130, 138, 145. 



GARDENING 173 

CHAPTER XVII. 
GARDENING. 

In the broad sense the word horticulture is used to include 
fruit growing, vegetable growing, the production of flowers, 
ornamental trees and shrubs, and the uses of these in beau- 
tiful landscape effects about lands and buildings. We have 
already considered the subject of fruit growing. 

Vegetable Gardening. — The growing of vegetables has 
been given the name olericulture. Farmers may grow vege- 
tables either for home use or for market. 

Gardening is always a special line of farming, and may be 
called intensive agriculture. Large returns are secured from 
small areas. Several hundred dollars per acre may be ex- 
pected from a good market garden. 

Elements of Success. — To be very successful in growing 
good vegetables several conditions are required : 

1. The soil must be rich and well drained. 

2. It must be supplied with plenty of humus to retain 
moisture. It should be manured heavily. 

3. Sandy loam is necessary if vegetables are to be ready 
for early market. 

4. The soil should be plowed deep and the most thorough 
tillage of crops practiced. 

5. The best methods for the prevention of weeds must 
be practiced. Never allow weeds to scatter seed or spread 
by other means in the garden. 

6. Select good varieties for the table and market, and 
have the products ready for all seasons. 

7. Prepare produce attractively for market. 

8. Gather the best seeds from the best plants for future 
planting; or if seeds are purchased, get the best possible. 

Planning the Garden. — The best plan for planting the 



174 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



garden is to have the crops in long rows, not in "beds." 
Have the rows run the longest way of the garden, preferably 
north and south (Fig. 96), and have the garden long enough 
so that a horse may be used both in plowing the soil and in 
cultivating the crops. 

Plant the rows far enough apart to allow the use of a 
cultivator drawn by horse power. See Table XII in the 
Appendix. Much more profit may be gained from a garden 
cultivated by horse power. Too much hand weeding and 




Fiii. '."i ~i 1 1 iranlening in California with the long rows instead of small 

beds. Iniiiaiiijii water 1.- just flowing in tlie center of the garden from the portable 
flume or trough along the edge of the garden. (Agricultural Education.) 



hoeing is irksome and is too often neglected. Hand labor 
is always more expensive than horse labor in the garden. 

The perennials or permanent crops, such as asparagus, 
rhubarb, horse-radish and many of the sweet herbs, should 
be planted along one side of the garden near the bush fruits. 
They will then be out of the way when plowing the rest of 
the garden (Fig. 97). 

Time of Planting. — Some plants used in the garden are 
very tender and must not be planted in the open garden 
in spring until all danger of frost is over. Others are 
quite hardy and may be planted as early as the soil can 
be prepared. The following Usts may be referred to by 
beginners : 



GARDENING 175 

Hardy vegetables which will endure a frost after sprout- 
ing in the spring: 



asparagus 


endive 


parsnip 


beets 


horse-radish 


peas 


cabbage 


kale 


radish 


carrot 


lettuce 


rhubarb 


cauliflower 


onions 


salsify 


celery 


parsley 


spinach 


cress 


potato 


turnip 



Late and early plantings of several of these may be made. 
Injured by Frost. — These vegetables \vill be injured by 
a slight frost. They should be planted after all danger of 
it is over : 

beans of all kinds muskmelon squash 

corn okra sweet potato 

cucumber pepper tomato 

egg-plant pumpkin watermelon 

There are several of this group that should be started 
earlier than the last spring frost. The seed may be planted 
in hot-beds or in window-boxes in the home or school. Egg- 
plant, pepper, tomato and sweet potato are usuall}^ thus 
started in early spring. 

Planting Seed. — Such large seeds as corn, beans, peas, 
squash, pumpkin, and melons may be covered with two 
inches or more of soil. Small seeds must be planted very 
shallow. If the soil be rather damp or heavy the planting 
should be shallower than in light, dry soil. When seeds are 
planted the soils should be pressed firmly down upon them, 
so that the soil moisture will soften the seed and cause it 
to sprout. For seeds planted in hills it is well to walk on the 
covered seeds. After the packing is done with the foot or 
with a roller, the rake should be drawn lightly over the top 
to leave a loose soil mulch. This saves the moisture by pre- 
venting its escape into the air. 

Setting Garden Plants. — Those garden plants which are 
started indoors for protection should be strong, healthy 
plants when set in the garden after the weather is settled. 



176 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Care must be exercised in setting the plants in the garden. 
Avoid the hot sun, and if possible do the work in the evening. 
Save all the root of the young plant, but a little pruning of 
the leaf surface may be made. 

Make the hole in the mellow garden soil deep enough 
to avoid doubhng the root. A dibber is used in the planting. 




Fig. 97. 



-Plan of ten-acre farm-school. The rotation of crops is to be changed to 
suit each locaUty. (Agricultural Education.) 



Set the plant a little deeper than it grew before. Water, 
if necessary, before filling in all the dirt. Fill in around the 
roots and plant with -the very finest soil. Press this down 
well, but leave a little quite loose on top. 

Hot=bed or Cold=frame. — For the starting of early vege- 
tables a hot-bed is of great aid. Plants may be grown in it 
to be set in the garden later. Early crops of lettuce and 



GARDENING 



177 



radish may be grown during late winter. Make a tight 
frame of boards, perhaps six by nine feet, or to suit the size 
of the glass (Fig. 98). This should be about two feet deep 
on the north side and six or eight inches less on the south 
side. This gives a slope to the window sash to catch the 
rays of the sun. 

The hot-bed should have in the bottom ten inches of 
firmly tramped horse manure that has begun to heat a little. 
Cover this with five or six inches of rich garden soil. 




Fig. 98. — A back-yard hot-bed. These sashes were made for this special purpose 
with lap glasses to shed off water. 



The cold-frame is made in the same way but does not 
have the heating manure in the bottom to warm the soil. 
It is usually placed on the south side of a building or high 
fence to secure the best effects from the sun's heat. 

Care must be exercised not to let the temperature in 
these frames vary too much. On cold nights, carpets or 
blankets may be thrown over the glass. When the sun is 
very hot, the glass is raised a little or taken off to let out 
the surplus moisture and hot air (Fig. 99). 

Double Cropping. — Market gardeners often raise two 
or more crops on the same ground in a season. This is called 
double cropping. 
12 



178 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



If the crops follow one after another it is succession- 
cropping. Such crops must mature quickly. Early peas or 
radish or lettuce may be followed by tomatoes, late cabbage 
or celery. 

If the crops are grown together in the garden for all or 
part of their time the system is called companion-cropping. 
One of these crops matures early and the other is started 
between the rows before the first crop is harvested (Fig. 100) . 
An example would be early onions with cabbage. With 
some vegetables both the crops may be drilled in the row 




Fig. 



A rjiarket gardener's hot-beds for the forciiii^ of early vegetables and 
starting plants for the open ground. (Plant Industry.) 



together, as when radishes and beets are planted. The 
radishes are harvested by the time the beets need the room. 
Early and late celery may be grown together. When the 
first crop is sold the late crop is ready to use all the space. 

Storing Vegetables. — Vegetables of several kinds may 
be stored for winter use. Onions should be well dried before 
storing. They are to be handled without bruising, and are 
spread in single layers on open shelves in a dry place where 
they will not freeze. 

Celery and cabbage may be transplanted to a cold cellar 
before the ground freezes. Keep the soil moist about the 
roots and they will keep all winter. 



GARDENING 



179 



Beets, turnips, and similar root crops may be covered 
with dry dirt in a cellar box. This will keep them from dry- 
ing too much. 

Tomato vines may be pulled up before heavy frost and 
suspended from the ceiling in a cellar or cool room. As the 
green tomatoes ripen they may be wrapped in paper and 
kept several weeks. Hubbard squashes, pumpkins and 
watermelons need to be handled without bruising and kept 
in a dry, cold cellar. By storing vegetables for late fall and 




Fig. 100. — Harvest in the spring-time, from the school garden. (Agricultural 

Education.) 



winter use, and starting a hot-bed for late winter and early 
spring use, we can supplement the summer garden and have 
vegetables for home use all the year. 

Exercise. — Frost and Rainfall. — Write to the Weather 
Bureau, at Washington, and get the summary of the weather 
record for your section. Find the dates when the late spring 
frosts and the early fall frosts occur. IjOoIc up, also, the 
annual rainfall and see how many inches of this rain falls 
in the summer months. It is good practice for the members 
of the class to keep records of frosts in fall and spring. The 
time of planting garden vegetables may be governed by 
these records. 



180 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



School Gardening. — The principles already given for 
vegetable gardening at home may be used in the school 
garden. Let the rows be long, and each student may have 



nnn 



nnnnDDDDDDnD 

QDO DDDDDDDDDgH g 




^ r 

Fig. 101. — Planting plan for a one-acre school-yard, with school garden plots 
at the rear. The trees and shrubs are not scattered over the lawns and playground. 
lAgricultural Education.) 

a whole row or a section across several rows instead of a 
small bed. In this way the students can learn to garden as 
at home. They may use the drill and wheel hoe if the school 
can afford these implements. 



GARDENING 181 

The place for the school garden should be handy to the 
school but not necessarily on the land owned by the school. 
Do not let its location interfere with the school play-ground. 
See the location in Figs. 97 and 101. 

The garden need not be very large, but let the size be 
whatever is available and make the best use of it. 

Equipment and Seeds. — Under most circumstances a 
fence will be required. A neat woven wire fence will keep 
out chickens and dogs as well as larger animals. 

The school need not own the plow and horse tools. The 
horse work will be done by volunteers or by those paid for 
doing it. The school may own several good hand rakes and 
dibbers, a few hoes, a few spades, lines and stakes for marking 
the rows, and some sprinklers for watering. Seeds may be 
purchased in small packages, and schools may also get seeds 
for school gardening by writing to the Bureau of Plant 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Exercise. — Making a Hot-bed. — Allow the larger boys 
to make a hot-bed according to directions in this chapter. 
(See Fig. 98.) Probably most of the materials may be 
brought by students. Two small sashes may be held together 
by two strips of wood along the edges. When it is all made, 
put in the manure and soil, and when the bed has become 
warm plant lettuce and radish seeds. It is well to keep a 
thermometer inside as a guide in governing the temperature. 

What to Plant. — One plan to follow in the spring work 
in the school garden is to plant such crops as will give results 
before school closes for the vacation (Fig. 102). 

Some of the quickest crops for spring use are lettuce, 
radish, early peas, onion sets, spinach, early carrots, and in 
some cases there might be time to grow very early potatoes. 

The plants that could be left growing in the school 
garden through the summer vacation would be late potatoes, 
tomatoes, squashes, egg-plants, late beans, late cabbages, 



182 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

late onions, late beets, turnips, and celery. These should 
be taken care of by some one living near who is appointed 
for the purpose. The summer garden is too often neglected. 
Rhubarb and asparagus may be planted in spring, and when 
well established will be a good feature of the spring garden. 
The fall season is not a bad time to start a school garden. 
At that season we may start vegetables that will live over 
winter, such as kale, winter onions, spinach, and others. 
The cold-frame may be used to store over winter plants that 
were started in the warm fall weather. Lettuce, cabbage, and 




Fig. 102. — Children's garden, Red Wing, Minn. (Agricultural Education.) 

cauliflower may be kept over and get an early start the fol- 
lowing spring. 

The hot-bed may be used in the fall to produce quick 
crops of lettuce and radishes. 

Fruits and flowers should also be used a great deal in 
the school garden. Select those which will bear the blossoms 
and fruit at a time when the school is in session. Early 
strawberries may be used if school is not closed too early. 
Plant the permanent crops at one side of the garden to allow 
free use of the plow in preparing for annual planting. (See 
Fig. 97.) 

Garden Experiments. — The school garden in both city 
and country should be a place to experiment. Something 



GARDENING 



18^ 



should be learned besides how plants grow. Such experi- 
ments as some of the following may be tried even in window 
boxes, or plant trays (Fig. 103) : 

Determine the influence of depth of planting as sug- 
gested by Fig. 77. But try it in the garden as well as in 
the school-room. 




Fig. 103. — A. The roof garden made by children. The city is a place where 
many experiments may be tried. 

B. School garden work; a lesson in thinning plants. (Agricultural Education.) 



Compare two parts of a row with and without dust- 
mulch methods. 

Try potatoes by the "level culture" and the "hilling up" 
methods. 

Grow crops that are not commonly raised in the section; 
perhaps some new legumes, as alfalfa, cow peas, soy beans, 
or vetch. 

The effects of certain fertilizers or of lime may be tried 



184 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

on certain rows and other rows next to them left untreated. 
In hke manner the effects of spraying may be tested. 

Many soil experiments may be tried in the garden. Test 
the soil with litmus paper for acids. Test the temperature 
of the soil in spring and fall. 

Cover a square foot with black material, as charcoal, 
and another square with lime. Then test the soil again to 
see if the sun heats one soil more than the other. Which? 

Compare the packing, baking, and crusting effects of 
sandy soil and clay soil. 

Germination tests may be made to show the benefits of 
pressing the soil against planted seeds; to show the effect of 
too much water, which excludes the air; to determine the 
length of time for sprouting of seeds of different size, as large 
and small radish seed, or the tip kernels and middle kernels 
of an ear of corn. 

Use of Products. — If there be suitable products from the 
school garden let them first be used for making up an exhibit 
at school. Later they may be sold to get money for the 
garden expenses. 

School Garden Plots at Home. — Much of the summer 
gardening may be done at home by the students. Parents 
should be requested to set aside a stated area for use of the 
pupils at their homes. On this plot they may grow the crops 
desired for school exhibits. Corn and other crops may be 
grown in home plots better than at school during vacation. 
Let fertilizer experiments, culture trials, and spraying be 
conducted by the students on the home plots. Suitable 
bulletins and leaflets may be obtained outlining contests 
to be carried on during the vacation. The products may be 
shown at school in the fall. 

Ornamental Gardening. — The appropriate use of trees, 
shrubs, vines, greensward, or grass plots, and flowering 
plants to adorn a place is sometimes called landscape gar- 
dening. Too little thought is given to this by the average 



GARDENING 



185 



person. The school grounds and the home grounds too 
often show no ornamental planting. 

Principles of Planting. — There should be a lawn on which 
green grass is growing thriftily, but which is well trimmed. 
This should cover most of the area. 

The trees and shrubs should not be planted in rows nor 
scattered at random over this greensward. They should be 
in groups, masses, borders, and corners (Fig. 104). Large 
trees may be in rows along roads or streets. 




Fig. 104. — Arrangement of shrubs at the bays and angles of the walks to give a 

pleasing picture. 



Shrubs may fringe curved walks and driveways, but 
are more satisfactory if massed in the angles or curves of 
the driveways. Let them form the footing about the 
foundations of buildings — hiding the naked feet of the 
structure. 

Masses of shrubs and trees or vines on trellises should 
hide any unsightly structures from view (Fig. 105). 

Let all the planting assume grace and natural curvature 
of outline. . Do not prune the evergreens and shrubs to 



186 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

assume grotesque and artificial forms. Such were the fashions 
of ornamental gardening many years ago. 

The lower branches of evergreens and shrubs should be 
left near the ground and carry the pleasing effect of blending 
the foliage with the greensward (Fig. 106) . 

Vines may be used about porches and on trellises over 
the corners and in the angles of buildings. They remedy the 
angular effects and lend a softening beauty to the rugged 
structure. 

The School Grounds should come in for their full share 
of attention in the study of ornamental planting. Dr. L. H. 



FlO. 105. — \ iiic-i aro Ihtp \isci1 to cover a glaring \vliit(> sfonc hull. ling. 'J'he mass 
of trees at the left is used to liide low buildings. 

Bailey has described the conditions on the average rural 
school grounds as ''bare, harsh, cheerless, immodest." These 
are some reasons assigned for children disliking the school. 

Let a change be made. Have plans made before the 
opening of spring. 

Exercise. — Plans for Planting. — Make a sketch of the 
grounds showing the permanent structures, well, fences, 
and any trees now growing. Add to this the proposed plant- 
ings for the spring. Indicate these by lines such as are used in 
Figs. 97 and 101. Use United States Farmers' Bulletins 185 
and 248 to aid in making the plans. The former will suggest 
what plants to use. Students maj' supply these from home, 



GARDENING 



187 



or they may be obtained from the native woods or from 
nurseries. 

Planting may be done on any suitable days in early 
spring. Protect the roots of trees well before they are 
planted. The easiest way is to make a little trench, put the 




Fig. 106. — Evergreens may be planted in close masses and also as single specimens. 

roots in these and cover with dirt until the permanent places 
are ready. Evergreens need to be handled with the greatest 
care, because they are constantly losing moisture through 
the leaves. The soil should not be removed from the roots 
at all while being transplanted. They may be set into small 
boxes while being carried, or the soil may be kept on by 
wrapping with old carpet or sacking. 



REVIEW. 

1. What is horticulture? Olericulture? 

2. Give several elements of sucxiess in growing good vegetables. 

3. Describe a good plan for the vegetable garden. 

4. Name ten garden plants that can stand some frost. 

5. Name ten that are injured by frost. 

6. Give directions for depth of planting seeds in heavy and light 
soils. 

7. Tell how to set out tomatoes and other garden plants. 

8. What is a hot-bed? A cold-frame? 

9. In what two ways is a hot-bed heated? 

10. What are the uses of a hot-bed? 

11. What is succession-cropping? Give examples. 

12. What is companion-cropping? Give examples. 



188 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

13. Tell how to store for winter use some of the common vegetables. 

14. A\'hat is the best kind of fence for the school garden? 

15. What are some of the best vegetables for the spring garden at 
school or at home? 

16. What ones may be planted in spring for fall use? 

17. What ones may be started in fall and live over winter? 

18. Mention some experiments to try in the school garden. 

19. Should shrubs and trees be scattered over the lawn? 

20. Where should they be planted? 

21. Tell of good uses for vines. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 104, Notes on 
Frost; 185, Beautifying the Home Grounds; 195, Annual Flowering 
Plants; 220, Tomatoes; 231, Spraying for Cucumber and Melon 
Diseases; 239, The Corrosion of Fence Wire; 248, The Lawn; 254, 
Cucumbers; 289, Beans; 434, Onion Seed and Sets. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
FRUIT PRODUCTION. 



There is an active interest in the growing of good fruit. 
Almost every farmer is interested in the subject. He may 
grow it for his own use if not for market. Fruit may be con- 
sidered among the luxuries of the table. As the people 
become more prosperous they call for more such luxuries. 
Thus the demand for fruit of the best quality is increasing. 

The Orchard.— The production of fruit naturally involves 
more time than the growth of most farm crops. For this 
reason more care must be exercised to have the best condi- 
tions possible from the very beginning. 

The Orchard Site. — Exposure, soil, and air-drainage are 
all-important considerations. If the orchard is somewhat 
above the surrounding land, the cold air of frosty spring 
nights can drain away. Thus the early blossoms may be 
saved from injury. Strong westerly winds are often inju- 
rious to trees and, therefore, an easterly or northeasterly 
slope is preferred. If a south slope were chosen this might 
cause more movement of sap in winter or very early spring. 
We should avoid forcing the spring growth too early. 



FRUIT PRODUCTION If? 189 

Heavy soils are well suited to the growth of apples and 
pears; while the lighter soils are better for peaches, American 
plums and grapes. 

The propagation of fruit trees at home and in nurseries 
has been described. (See Chap. III.) 

When to Plant Fruit Trees. — The age of a fruit tree is 
counted from the time of its first spring growth after budding 
or grafting. 

Peach and plum trees are usually transplanted to the 
orchard after one season's growth in the nursery. They are 
then called yearling trees. 

Apple trees for orchard planting may be either one or two 
years old. Some orchardists prefer the younger trees, while 
others want them older. 

The planting may be done in late fall or early spring, the 
latter being preferred. 

Setting Orchard Trees. — As much fibrous root should 
be preserved as possible. The roots should be kept from 
the wind and sun to prevent drying out. As soon as delivered 
at the orchard, heel them in. That means to cover the roots 
with soil in a temporary trench. 

The holes should be large and some of the best loose dirt 
thrown in the bottom before the tree is placed in it. The 
roots are to be straightened out, not bent. Pack the richest 
dirt well, but leave a mulch of loose soil on top to prevent 
evaporation of soil moisture. 

In dry weather and in dry climates it is well to haul 
water in barrels or tanks and water each tree soon after it is 
set. The loose soil is to be put on after the water has soaked 
into the soil. 

Principles of Pruning.— The pruning of trees is very 
essential in securing the best results in fruit growing. Var- 
ious parts naturally crowd each other; the fruit is smaller 
as a result of this. Twigs or branches become diseased and 
should be cut out. Limbs may break in the wind and should 



190 



PRODUCTIVE FAR^nNG 



be sawed off smoothly so the wounds may heal quickly. 
In spite of these conditions we find many old orchards that 
are neglected and never pruned. 

Young Trees. — When a young orchard is set out the roots 
should be examined and any broken or split surface made 
smooth with a sharp knife. The straggling or extra long 
roots should be cut back. The tops should be cut back to 
a suitable height. With a one-year-old tree this may cause 
the formation of side branches to make the future head of 

FiQ. 107. 









Fig. 107. — Peach tree headed too high. 

Fig. 108. — Low-headed peach tree at priming time. 



the tree. It is best to head trees low enough so they will be 
within easy reach of pickers. Compare Figs. 107, 108. 
Fig. 109 shows the relative position of the young twigs that 
will become the future main branches: (A) represents the 
position of these on an imaginarj'' circle drawn around the 
tree. Here there are thiee branches; perhaps four would do 
as well. These should be at different heights on the main 
stem (B), to avoid splitting away from each other when 
there is a heavy wind or load of fruit. 

Annual Pruning. — As the trees grow older it is well to 
cut back a part of the new growth each year to induce proper 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



191 



branching of the long shoots. This will induce the formation 
of fruit buds, fruit spurs and future fruit crops lower down 
on the branches, and the support will be better. 




-^^\-. 



Fig. 109. — A shows the choice limbs which extend in different directions from the 
main axis; others are cut away. B shows the same limb of the mature tree. If they 
axe the same height they will be split off too easily by wind when loaded with fruit 




Fig. 110. — Yearling peach tree, before and after pruning. 

Cut out some side twigs where they strike across through 
the tree top. Prune where they are too thick; such pruning 
is equivalent to thinning the fruit, making it larger. Let 
in the sunlight. Cut out all dead or diseased or broken parts. 
Prune where branches rub together. (Fig. 110.) 



192 



PRODUCTIVE FARlVnNG 



Care in Pruning. — Avoid cutting very large branches if 
several smaller cuts will accomplish the same result. Large 
wounds are apt to lead to internal decay. 

Leave the cut surfaces as smooth as possible. If a saw is 
ever used, the wound should be smoothed with a knife. 

Cut side limbs as close to the main stems as possible. 
Never leave stubs (Fig. 111). 

Cover the exposed tissues of the larger cut surfaces with 
paint or grafting wax to prevent weathering and decay. 

Time to Prune.— Pruning by pinching off small shoots 
and disbudding can be jDractised to very good advantage in 




Fig. 111. — Side limbs should be cut very close to the main stem, so the place may 
heal over and get "well." A was properly pruned; B was pruned too far out. 

the summer time (Fig. 112). The main pruning, however, 
is done in very early spring before the sap begins to flow. 
Some plants, such as grape vines, will bleed or lose much sap 
if pruned too late in the spring. 

Exercise. — Fruit Buds. — Twigs bearing both fruit buds 
and leaf buds may be selected from the different kinds of 
fruit trees in the neighborhood. Compare these and learn 
to recognize fruit buds on trees in winter (Fig. 113). 

Exercise. — Pruning. — A small tree or upright branch 
from the wood-lot may be cut and brought to school. Let 
pupils first mark with chalk w^hat limbs and tw^igs should 
be taken of¥. Then have the pruning done in accordance 
with the lesson taught in Fig. 109. Either sharp knives or 
special pruning shears (Fig. 114) may be used in this exercise. 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



193 



Culture. — The young orchard should be kept growing 
rapidly. Considerable organic matter and nitrogen in the 
soil will help produce this early growth. To obtain these 
materials the best fruit growers sow cover crops in the orchard 
each year, to be plowed under in the spring. If these crops 
are composed partly of legumes, such as crimson clover and 




Fig. 112. — Young peach tree, summer pruned by pincliing off small shoots. 



winter vetch, they will gather the nitrogen for the young 
trees to use. After the cover crop or green manure is plowed 
under in spring the ground is kept well harrowed until mid- 
summer (Fig. 115); then the cover crop is again sown. One 
influence of the fall cover crop is to check late fall growth, 
especially in peach trees, and cause the season's growth to 
harden up for winter. 
13 



194 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The first year or two some orchardists grow a crop for 
market between the trees. In such cases this crop should 
have clean culture until July or August. Fall cultivation 
is not desirable, as the young shoots are more apt to winter- 




FiG. 113. — Fruit buds and spurs of four common fruit trees, apple and pear at 
left, plum and cherry at right. 

kill if kept growing too late. For economy of space peaches 
are frequently used as fillers or temporar}^ trees, in rows 
between apple trees. The peach trees come into bearing by 
the third or fourth summer and may be past their prime by 
the time the apple trees are large enough to fill the space 
between rows. The peach trees are then cut out. AVhere 




Fig. 114. — Several forms of hand pruning shears. 

fillers are used, the permanent trees should ])e set from 
thirty to forty feet apart, according to variety and soil. 

Varieties. — Choose varieties carefully. There are many 
good varieties to choose from, in all kinds of fruit. Select 
those which are known to do well in your o^\^l climate and 
on similar soils. Prof. M. A. Blake, of the New Jersey 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



195 



Experiment Station, names the following varieties of peaches 
in order of ripening as a suitable list from which to choose: 
Carman, Hiley, Champion, Belle of Georgia, Elberta, Fox 
Seedling, Edgemont Beauty, Iron Mountain, and Krummel 
October. 

Varieties of apples are classified as summer, fall, and 
winter, according to the season when they are in prime con- 




FiG. 115. — 1 uiiu iiiiiv; an orchard with a disk harrow. Whoro tlu' 1 iinl is 
level enough to pie\cnt had ■na-liins; of tlie soil, orchanis ^liould be cultivated 
throughout the fir-t half of each simuiier Plows and disk harrows nia.\ he used in 
early spring. These are followed by spike-toothed harrows or light cultivators. 



dition of maturity, 
following lists: 

Summer 
Yollow Transparent 
Williams Early Red 
Duchess of Oldenburg 
IMaidcn Blush 
Gravenstein 



Good varieties may be chosen from the 



Fall 
Wealthy 
Twenty Ounce 
Mcintosh Red 
Grimes Golden 
Jonathan 



Winter 
Tompkins King 
Baldwin 
Rome Beauty 
York Imperial 
Stayman Winesap 



The above is merely a suggestive list. The planter is to 
be governed in his choice of varieties by the results of other 
growers about him in his vicinity. Only one or two varieties 
of each season should be grown for market purposes. 



196 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Exercise. — Studying Apples. — In the fall or winter let 
students each bring to school good type specimens of apples. 
Let each tell the names of the a]iples he brings. The col- 
lection may Ijc studied and the varieties compared so the 
students will learn to know many of them. At noon or 
recess on the last day of this study let the apples be cut 
into sections so that they may be sampled as to flavor, 
texture, and value. 

Strawberries. — One of the best fruits for home use, as 
well as for market, is the strawberry. There are not many 
difficulties in growing this crop successfully. Probably the 




Fig. IIG. — The hedge-row system of raising strawberries. The straw mulch is 
kept between the rows until after picking time. 



greatest difficulty is in harvesting the crop after it is gro^^^l. 
Strawberries thrive best in a very rich black sandy loam. 

Two Methods of Planting. — There are several methods 
of planting strawl^erries. Two are here described, (1) the 
hedge-row system and (2) the matted-row system. In either 
system the plants may be set in the early spring, or in 
August if the weather is favorable. In the hedge row system 
(Fig. 116) the rows are three feet apart and the plants are set 
two feet apart in the rows. The runners, which all strawber- 
ries send out, are kept cut off with a hoe or wheel cutter; 
except that about three runners are placed and allowed to take 
root between each two plants, making the plants about six 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 197 

inches apart in tlie row. Frequent cultivation is practised 
throughout the first season and the blossoms are picked 
oft" to prevent any fruit from forming. About December 
first a clean mulch of straw or other clean litter is spread 
over the soil and vines to a depth of two or three inches. 
In spring this mulch is parted just a little over the rows to 
let the green leaves come through, and the mulch remains 
on the soil between the rows until the crop of fruit is all 
picked. Then the plants are mown and the mulch and tops 
raked and burned. This destroys the diseases and insects. 
Thorough cultivation is given until late fall and a mulch is 
again put on as before. After two or three crops are obtained, 
the plants are plowed under. 

In the matted row system of planting, the plants are set 
three and one-half or four feet apart and the plants about 
two feet apart in the row. Cultivation is given the first 
year, but many of the runners sent out by the plants are 
allowed to " take root " and form new plants in the 
middles or aisles within about one foot on each side of the 
mother plants. A mulch should be applied for winter, but 
it is again removed in the spring. After the crop is picked 
each year the weeds are pulled by hand from the wide matted 
row of plants formed by the runners. The narrow strips 
are cultivated as before. When two crops are obtained the 
vines should be plowed under. 

Comparison of the Two Systems. — The hedge-row system 
requires more vigilant care to prevent runners from taking 
root, and an equal amount of horse power cultivation is 
given to the plants. But there is very little hand weeding 
necessary, as in the matted row. The mulch kept on 
the soil through the berry-forming months keeps the fruit 
cleaner; it keeps down weeds, and conserves the soil moist- 
ure. In the hedge-row system the berries are larger and 
cleaner; the yield of marketable fruit is greater, and the work 
of picking is less. 



198 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Varieties. — The many varieties of strawberries are 
grouped under two heads (Fig. 117), (a) Those with perfect 
blossoms, bearing both stamens and pistils, and able to pro- 
duce fruit without the aid of pollen from other plants; (b) 
Imperfect varieties, those which have no stamens to bear 
pollen, having pistils only; these must get their pollen from 
other perfect varieties near them. Perfect varieties may be 
planted alone. Imperfect varieties must grow by the side of 
or near perfect ones which blossom at the same time. The 
pollen is carried from one blossom to another by bees and 
other insects. 

For the choice of varieties and methods of growing 
strawberries reference is made to U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 198. 




Fig. 117. — Flowers of strawberry, pistillate on left and perfect on right. 



Other Small Fruits. — In addition to the fruits which 
have just been described, the home fruit garden should con- 
tain such fruits as grapes, black and red raspberries, black- 
berries, currants, and perhaps gooseberries. These are all so 
easily grown that very little special training is necessary for 
any one to produce enough fruit for home use. The site for 
the home fruit garden shoukl be chosen not far from the resi- 
dence. The soil may then be enriched and put in good tilth. 

Pruning Small Fruits. — The beginner has greatest diffi- 
culty in (luestions of pruning. When the plants are being 
set out, all broken or decayed roots should be trimmed off; 
smooth-cut surfaces only should come next to the soil. The 
top should be cut back somewhat in proi^ortion to the reduc- 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 



199 



tion of the root area in transplanting. This maintains the 
proper balance of root and top in the next season's growth. 
Grapes need very little of the old wood left for the fol- 
lowing season's growth of vines and crop of fruit. The fruit 
is annually borne on shoots of the same season's growth 
(Fig. 118). Better grapes are obtained by cutting away con- 
siderable of the old wood each winter. 




Fig. 118. — The grape-%'ine show-in? blossom clusters on the new shoots. 



Raspberries and Blackberries l)oth bear their blossoms 
and berries on the end of new shoots. These shoots come 
from the last year's canes. In summer, after the crop is 
picked, cut out all of the old canes, and either head back 
or cut away entirely many of the young canes. This heavy 
pruning induces the growth of new canes from the crowns. 
These will bear the fruit branches next season. 

Currants and Gooseberries should not be pruned so much 
each year. The fruit is liorne on l)oth old and new wood, 
and only the very oldest parts need to be cut out. 



200 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The Fruit Crop. — When good fruit has been grown it 
should never be handled carelessly. Never shake apples, 
peaches, or other kinds of fruit to the ground. Pick the crop 




FiQ. 119. — Picking apples from ladders with sacks hanging from shoulders. The 
fruit is not bruised. 




Fig. 120. — A. A good way to pack the best peaches for market. Vhe crates 
each hold six half-peck baskets, and are called Georgia carriers. 

B. Sorting apples. For marketing they are packed in tight bo.\es and barrels. 

carefully, handling it almost as carefully as eggs. Bruised 
spots are the first to decay (Fig. 119). 

Pack the perishable kinds of fruit — grapes, berries, 
peaches, plums, and cherries — in suitable form for immediate 



FRUIT PRODUCTION 201 

sale in the markets (Fig. 120, A). Peaches, plums, apples, and 
pears should be graded according to size, color, and other 
market features. More money is thus secured for the whole 
crop. When large and small apples are sold in the same 
barrel or box they bring only the price of small apples (Fig, 
120). Grading machines are in use for sorting peaches or 
plums into several sizes; but the hand method is most com- 
mon. Study the figures showing methods of picking, sorting, 
packing, and marketing. 

Summer apples keep only a short time and must be mar- 
keted soon after they are ripe. Late fall and winter apples 
are often stored for sale or use later in the winter. A good 
method is to pack them in closed barrels and store in a cold 
cellar at a temperature just a little above freezing. When 
exposed to dry cellar air they shrivel badly. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give reasons for pruning trees. 

2. Tell what side limbs to save in pruning young trees just set in 
the orchard. 

3. What annual pruning should be done in the orchard ? 

4. Give several rules to observe in careful pruning. 

5. Describe a good orchard site. 

6. Describe good culture methods for young orchards. 

7. What are fillers in an apple orchard? Tell how used. 

8. Name several varieties of peaches. How many of these have 
you seen? 

9. Name some good summer apples. Fall. Winter. How many 
varieties do you know at sight ? 

10. Describe the hedge-row system of growing strawberries. 

11. Describe the matted-row system. 

12. In what respects is one better than the other ? 

13. What are perfect varieties of strawberries? Imperfect ? 

14. Why should the grower know to which group any variety 
belongs ? 

15. Give suggestions regarding the pruning of grapes. 

16. What pruning is done for raspberries and blackberries ? When ? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 113, The Apple and How 
to Grow It; 134, Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds; 154, The 
Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care; 156, The Home Vineyard; 
181, Pruning; 213, Raspberries; 218, The School Garden; 404, Irrigation 
of Orchards. 



202 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



CHAPTER XIX. 
INSECTS. 

Farmers, market gardeners, and fruit growers have their 
enemies to combat. Their crops and animals are attacked 
by numerous species of insects. It is estimated that hun- 
dreds of miUions of dollars are lost by the American farmers 
annually from this cause. Fruit that is infested or deformed 
by insects will bring much lower prices than first-class fruit. 

Structure. — Insects are six-legged animals with the body 
made up of segments or covered with a series of rings. There 
are two pairs of wings, except that flies and mosquitoes have 
only one pair, and in a few species of all orders the wings 
are undeveloped or are entirely wanting, as in the case of 
the bedbug. All insects in the adult stage have the body 
divided into three parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdo- 
men. The head bears the mouth parts, the antennce or 
feelers, and the eyes. The thorax, or chest, bears the iving^ 
and three pairs of legs. See Fig. 122d. 

Many insects have enormous powers of flight, as in the 
cases of the cbagon fly and the honey bee. The Rocky 
Mountain locust is a migrating insect and probablj' flies a 
hundred miles or more at a single flight. Some of the larger 
beetles seldom fly very far at a time. 

How Insects Feed. — The mouth parts of insects are of 
two kinds: those fitted for biting, as in grasshoppers and 
beetles, and those suited for sucking the food, as in mos- 
quitoes, bedbugs, bees, butterflies, and others. 

Those with biting mouth parts have two pairs of jaws 
with Avhich they cut and chew their food (Fig. 138). They 
consume the entire substance on which they feed, as bark, 
leaves, fruit, flowers, or other tissues (Fig.121). Such insects, 
when found on the outside of plants, may be killed by the 



INSECTS ^203 

application of some poisonous material to the plants on which 
they feed, as when we put poison on potato vines to kill the 
potato beetles. When biting insects such as bark beetles 
and tree borers feed in protected places it is impossible to 
apply the poison, and some other remedy must be found if 
possible. To decide what remedy to use we must first know 
the kind of mouth parts and the feeding habits of the insects. 
Insects with sucking mouth parts usually live upon the 
sap of plants or the blood of animals; a few of them, such as 
bees, butterflies, and moths, largely feed upon the nectar of 
flowers. The stone-fly and a few others get most of their 




Fig. 121. — Bean-weevil, natural size and enlarged, and a much infested beau. 
(From Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 

food when in the larva or youngest stage and have no true 
mouth parts when they come to the adult stage. Such 
insects live only a short time in the adult stage, their chief 
purpose being to lay eggs for the next brood; when this is 
done they soon die. 

The larva form of the butterfly has a biting mouth, while 
the adult has a sucking mouth. This is also true of flies and 
mosquitoes. 

As sucking insects get their food from the inside and not 
outside the objects on which they feed, we cannot poison 
them. We must resort to more difficult methods of fighting 
them. 

Contact insecticides are substances which will kill insects 
by coming into contact with them or by covering their bodies. 



204 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The maimer in which these insecticides kill is interesting. 
Insects breathe through pores or openings in the body — not 
through noses or mouths. When any material clogs these 
breathing pores the result is death. Suitable materials for 
this purpose are oils and powders. The oils may be mixed 
with other materials to prevent any damage to the plants on 
which the insects live. Kerosene emulsion and the miscible 
oils are so diluted that no damage will result to the trees 
or ether plants. 




Fig. 122. — Moulting of a grasshopper: a njTnph ready to change; b the skin 
split along the back and the adult emerging; c continues the process, and at d the 
insect is drj-ing out. (From Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



It must be remembered that these contact insecticides 
really smother the insects and must necessarily be applied 
when the insects are present. They should not be applied 
in advance, as poisons may be, to prevent the attacks of 
the insects. 

How Insects Grow. — The skin or outside coat of insects 
becomes very hard and will not stretch. When a growing 
insect has become so large as to entirely fill this coat, a new, 
soft coat forms underneath and the old one is shed. This 
process of shedding the coat is called moulting (Fig. 122). 
The skin is moulted several times during the life of the insect, 
and each time the insect becomes larger or changes in other 



INSECTS 205 

respects. The chief changes with many insects occur in the 
last two moults. As insects have no bones or inside skeleton 
it is usually considered that the outside skin is really a 
skeleton. In this sense they may be said to have an outside 
skeleton. Muscles of the insect are attached to this skeleton; 
and sometimes the texture is very hard and horn-like. 

Complete and Incomplete Changes.^ — All insects may be 
classified on the basis of the amount of change occurring 
in their structure during the last two moults. (1) Those 
making the least change in structure and appearance during 
the last two moults are said to have incomplete changes. 
Examples of this are the true bugs and the grasshoppers. 
(2) Those making very great changes in structure and out- 
side appearance at the times of the last two moults are said 
to have complete changes; this is seen in the wasps, bees, 
butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and mosquitoes. 

Four Stages in the Life.— Insects with complete changes 
may be said to have four stages in their lives: (1) Egg stage, 
(2) larva stage, (3) pupa stage, (4) adult stage (Fig. 123). 

The larva is the growing stage. It is during this stage 
that most of the eating is done ; and with some insects enough 
is eaten during this stage to last them through the other 
stages of life. Some forms of larva will consume several 
times their own weight of food in a single day. 

The pupa is the resting or sleeping stage for many insects. 
The larva has enclosed itself in a case of some kind; some- 
times it spins a silken covering called a cocoon, as in the case 
of the silk worm and others. During this quiet resting stage 
the insects go through a great many changes. The digestive 
organs are very much changed; wings are grown and ready 
to unfold; legs are present instead of mere claws or pads; 
compound eyes are developed; often a very different mouth 
is formed; antennae or feelers are growTi upon the head. The 
pupa stage sometimes lasts over winter, and in other insects 
or other broods it may last only a few weeks. 



206 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



The adult emerges from the pupa case with the new set 
of organs just mentioned. It does not look like the larva 
that formed the pupa case ai)out itself, and yet it is the same 
individual. When a butterfly comes from its pupa it crawls 
upon some object, as a plant stem, where its folded wings may 




Fig. 123. — The currant worm: a, adults; h, lan-w in various stages of devel- 
opment; c, pupa; e, eggs along veins on leaf. (From Smith's "Insect Friends and 
Enemies.") 

hang downward. The wings gradually unfold or "grow" 
and in about twenty or thirty minutes they may be of full 
size and firm enough to use in carrying the insect in the air. 
The adult never moults and never grows any larger. 

Special names are given to some forms of larvae. The 
larvae of Initterflies and moths are called caterpillars. The 
larva of a beetle is called a grub. A maggot is the larval 
form of the fly. Mosquito wrigglers are really the larvae. 



INSECTS 207 

Nym-ph is a name given to the larval stage of dragon flies, 
stone flies, grasshoppers, and some others having incomplete 
life changes. 

Exercise. — Collecting Caterpillars. — Late in fall let 
pupils bring to school caterpillars or other larva? of several 
kinds which they may find. Let these be placed in boxes 
with wire or cloth gauze tied over them. Place in the bot- 
tom of the box some soil and insert in this some of the twigs 
with leaves for the larva? to feed upon. If the caterpillars 
are found on plants, that will inchcate what food they pre- 
fer. If they form papa cases in the cage, these may be kept 
in a cool place until the warm weather of spring brings them 
out. Or they may be induced to transform to the adult 
stage by bringing them into a warm room for a few weeks 
in February or March. 

Exercise. — Collecting Cocoons. — Cocoons and pupa may 
be collected during the wdnter months and brought to school, 
where the transformations may be watched. 

Exercise. — Making Glass Cages for Insects. — Let the 
pupils bring a few tin cans or six-inch flower pots, some 
large glass chimneys, such as lamp or lantern chimneys, 
and cloth netting. Damp soil may be kept in the pots and 
the chimneys placed over them with gauze tied on the top 
of the chimneys (Fig. 124). The cages may be used at school 
for insects that are to be observed by the pupils. Suitable 
plants may be kept fresh by inserting the stems in a small 
bottle of water inside the cage. 

Insect Enemies of Man. — Among the many kinds of 
insects there are those that are beneficial and others that 
are injurious. Some of the injurious insects are found 
attacking man himself; others his prepared food and cloth- 
ing; and others harass the domestic animals, or attack the 
crops in the field, garden, or orchard. 

Mosquitoes. — Mosquitoes are not only troublesome 
pests; they are worse than that, because they are carriers 



208 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



of the germs of human diseases. Malaria is spread by mos- 
quitoes, and in no other way. These malaria organisms 
are taken into the system of the mosquito with the blood 
sucked from diseased people. In the mosquito's bodj^ certain 




Fig. 124. — A. An insect breerling cage, easily made. (Agricultural Education.) 
B. Moth and pupa cases mounted on cotton under glass. Male cecropia moth 
above, male polyphemus moth below. (U.S. Office of Experiment Stations). 



changes take place in the life of the organisms which can 
take place nowhere else. If the mosquitoes were extermi- 
nated the organisms of malaria could not thrive. When a 
mosquito attacks a well person some of the germs of malaria 
are apt to be forced into the blood of the person by the sucking 
mouth parts of the insect. Thus every new case of malaria 
is started. 



INSECTS 



209 



The remedy is easy to understand. If the ponds or pools 
of standing water are taken care of, the malarial mosquitoes 
will not be able to find suitable breeding places. These 
stagnant waters may be drained away, or covered with crude 
oil, or fish may be kept in them to feed upon the wrigglers. 
Barrels and other vessels of water must be emptied or covered 
with oil. Houses should be screened to keep out mosquitoes. 
It is beheved that the malarial mosquitoes are never active 
during the day when the sun is shining. 

Fig. 126 



Fig. 125, 




Fig. 125. — Malarial mosquito wriggler at left, common at right. (Div. Ent., 
U. S. Dept. Agric.) 

Fig. 126. — Malarial mosquito below, common above. (Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. 
Agric.) 

It is not difficult to distinguish the malarial mosquitoes 
from the other common forms. The position of the wrigglers 
in the water when at rest is parallel to the surface of the 
water, while the resting position of the common mosquito 
wriggler is nearly perpendicular to the surface of the water 
(Fig. 125). When the adult malarial mosquito is attacking 
a person the body is nearly perpendicular to the surface 
attacked; while with the common mosquito it is nearly level 
with the surface (Fig. 126). 

Yellow fever is also spread by mosquitoes of a particular 
14 



210 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



grouj) (Fip;. 127). This is a coimnon form iii tlu> South. 
The bodies of the insects are striped with bands of black 
and white. Bj' reinovinfj; the breechu};" phices of these insects 
the yellow fever disease has at times been stamjx'd out in 
New Orleans and elsewhere. 

ExKucisK. — To Study Mosqiiilo Wri'dgla-s. — Put a ^hiss 
of water from a rain barrel, with a few wrigglers in it, on a 
window sill. Cover it with a ^heet of wire gauze to catch any 
that transform. Observe the l)reathing tubes that are held 
up to tlie surface of the water when the wrigglers are at rest. 




Fl«. 127. — Tlio ypUow-fevpr mosquito, liirvn, pvipn, adult. (From Suiidi's "Iiisfct 
I'Vioixls anil Kupnues.") 



Flies. — The eggs of flies are laid in moist masses of decay- 
ing refuse, such as manure, dead animals, slop, and many 
kinds of garbage. When the eggs hatch the maggots u.se 
those materials as food and grow rai)idly. Then they cover 
themselves with a leather-like pupa case, from which they 
emerge in a few days as adult flies (Fig. 128). The time 
re(iuired for the eggs to develop into ai.lult flies is only a 
few days. A few of the adult flies live over winter and these 
are the ones that start the first broods when warm weather 
returns, liy the (Mid of the summer the number of flies 
has increased enormouslv. 



INSECTS 



211 



Diseases of man are carried on the feet and mouth parts 
of house flies (Fig. 129). The swarms of flies seeking suitable 
places to hiy their eggs visit all kinds of filthy places. Again 




Fui. 128. — A Tacliiiiid fly: its (>u;gs on body of catprpillur, larva aii<l pvipa. (From 
Siuitli's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 

these same Hies visit the kitcluMis and dining rooms in search 
of food. (J(>rms of disease, as well as otluM-s, are (tarried 
from the filthy places to the food over whi(!h they crawl. 
House flies may well be called typhoid flies. 




Fiii. 129. — The Iidusc (ly: larva willi details at rinlit, pupa case at left. (From 
Smith's "I iiMi-cl Frienils and l')ii(Miiies.") 



Tino good remedies are easy to apply. (1) Clean up tlie 
near-by garbage heaps and filthy places where fli<'s could 
breed. Sprinkle diluted carbolic acid all about such places 



o\o 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



frequently. This will help to keep flies away from there and 
will kill many of the germs of typhoid fever and other dis- 
eases which might be there. (2) Screen the kitchen and 
dining-room well to keep all flies away from the human food. 
The Clothes Moth. — These insects lay their eggs in stored 
furs, woollen clothing, and other such places. The young 
eat the garments or materials in which they find themselves, 
thus doing much damage (Fig. 130). The adult moths do 
no damage except to start new broods of young. There 
are several remedies. Probably the best is to keep the adult 




Fig. 130. — A clothes moth, tvith its caterpillar in and out of case. (From Smith' 
" Insect Friends and Enemies,") 

moths away from the stored materials by keeping these 
articles securely closed up in tight boxes or moth-proof bags, 
in which there is some odor not agreeable to the moths. Such 
odors are tar, camphor, naphtha, tobacco, and red cedar. 
Moth-proof bags may be made of new nmshn, sewed well 
and closely tied after articles are put in. Clothes moths 
have no taste for cotton goods. Articles Avill be well pro- 
tected from moths if kept in a trunk in cold storage. The 
low temperature prevents the development of the insects. 

Grain Moths. — The adult grain moth is seen flying about 
homes or places where corn or other grain has been stored. 
Its habits and its size cause it to be mistaken for the adult 



INSECTS 213 

clothes moth. The eggs are laid on corn and the small grains. 
The larva eats its way into the kernels, and emerges only 
when it has transformed to the adult stage. When these 
insects are in great numbers they do much damage. 

Stored grain may be treated by evaporating a dish of 
bisulphide of carbon on top of the bin of grain. The fumes 
settle into the crevices and kill the insects (see Appendix). 
The bins should be made as close or air-tight as possible 
during this treatment. Corn in open cribs is seldom troubled 
with grain moths, except in warm climates, as the cold of 
winter checks their breeding. 

Chinch Bug. — This is a showy insect, in spite of the fact 
that it is less than one-fifth of an inch long, the body being 
nearly black and the wings white. The chinch bug is a true 
bug, with a sucking mouth, and has a continuous growing 
stage from the egg to the adult form. The insects attack 
wheat, corn, and other grains and grasses, sucking the sap 
and often destroying the crop or reducing the yield. It lives 
over winter in the adult stage. A single female can lay sev- 
eral hundred eggs which soon hatch and the numbers become 
very great by midsummer. After a wheat crop is killed or 
has ripened they hunt for other succulent crops, such as corn. 
As only the adults can fly, the greatest numbers have to 
migrate to the next field by crawling. Efforts have been 
successfully made to stop their march from one field to 
another by plowing deep furrows in which tar, kerosene, or 
other materials may be used to destroy the insects. It is 
also well to practise rotation of crops, and to plow the fields 
in fall in places where the chinch bugs are abundant. 

Potato Beetles. — The Colorado, or ten-lined, potato 
beetle is known well by all who raise potatoes (Fig. 131). 
It passes the winter in the pupa stage, and the adult, appear- 
ing in spring, lays clusters of yellow eggs on the under side 
of potato leaves early in the season. These hatch into small, 
soft, red grubs which eat the leaves. The best remedies 



2U 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



are sprays of poison on the growing crop, Paris green or 
arsenate of lead is mixed with water or with Bordeaux 
(bor-do') mixture and sprayed on the vines two or three 
times at intervals of a few weeks. The Bordeaux mixture 
(see Appendix) is used with the poison on potatoes for several 
reasons. It prevents the injury to leaves by the strong 
poisons. It holds the poison on the plants longer. It helps 
to prevent the early and the late blight diseases of potatoes. 




Fig. 131. — Colorado potato beetle: a, egg; 6, larva-; c, pupa; d, adult beetles. 
(From Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



The Codling=moth or Apple Worm. — The worst insect 
enemy to apple growing is the codling-moth, the larva of 
which is the apple worm. The markets of the cities do not 
want wormy apples. The insect which thus destroys the 
apple crop is shown in Fig. 132. The larva spins a nest or 
case in the crevices about the trunk of the tree where it lives 
over winter. The adult emerges in warm spring weather, 
and lays eggs in the blossom end of the little apple just after 
the petals fall from the tree (see Fig. 150 C). The larva eats 
its way into the fruit and feeds about the center. When 



INSECTS 



215 



fully fed, it crawls out and lets itself down to the ground by 
a silken thread. Later a second brood may appear, to attack 
the fall and winter varieties of apples, the eggs being laid 
on the outside of the half-grown fruits. 

The best remedies for the apple worm are poison sprays. 
These may be applied along with other sprays to prevent 
such diseases as apple-scab and apple-rust. Three pounds 
of arsenate of lead are mixed with fifty gallons of the other 




Fig. 1.32. — Codling-moth and its work: a, the injury done; b, place where 
egg was laid; e, larva; d, pupa; i cocoon; /, g adults. (From Smith's "Insect 
Friends and Enemies.") 

spray material and sprayed on the tree in the form of a fine 
mist just after the petals fall. The other spray material 
may be either lime-sulfur or Bordeaux mixture. The caljTC 
cup of the apple should be open when the poison is applied. 
This condition is seen in Fig. 150 C, and the calyx after it has 
closed is shown in Fig. 150 D. 

The Curculio of Plums and Peaches. — This is the insect 
which makes certain stone-fruits wormy. The peach, plum, 
cherry, apricot, and others are often attacked by it. This 
insect is a true beetle, but it has the jaws at the end of a 



216 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



long snout or beak (Fig. 133). When the fruit is very small 
th(> adult l)eetle cuts a crescent-shaped opening in the skin 
Avith its jaws, and lays an egg in it. A grub-like larva hatches 
from this and burrows into the fruit, eating its way to the 
seed. This attack is likely to cause the peaches or plums to 
■fall to the ground. When the larva is fully fed it leaves the 
fruit and forms its pupa in the ground. 

Apples, pears, and peaches are frequently bitten by the 
adult curculio and the wounds thus formed may make the 
fruit become deformed, as in Fig. 134. 




Fig. 13.3. — Plum-curculio: a, lan'a; 6, pupa; c, adult; rf, beetle at work on a young 
plum, showing a crescent mark. (.From Smith's "Economic Entomology.") 



It is difficult to poison the larva because it is inside the 
fruit. The adult insect may be poisoned by spraying while 
it is feeding upon buds and young leaves in the orchard 
before laying the eggs. Another time to poison the adult 
is when the fruit is being eaten to make a place for the eggs. 
Hogs, sheep, and poultry in the orchard, during the time the 
early fruits are falling, will destro}^ many of the curculio 
larvae. This will probably reduce the injury next season. 
Some fruit growers spread sheets or other receptacles under 
the trees and jar the trees to shake off the beetles before they 
lay their eggs. They lie quiet after being jarred off and are 
easily gathered up and destroyed. This should be done very- 



INSECTS 



217 



early in the morning and repeated every day or two for about 
two weeks just before the eggs are laid. 

Peach Tree Borer. — This insect does more injury through- 
out the plum and peach growing districts than any other 
insect. The adult is a beautiful moth, resembling a wasp in 



Fig. 134. 



Fig. 135. 




Fig. 134. — Peaches injured by curculio. 

Fig. 135. — Trunk of peach tree .^thowTiig a nietliod of keeping away peach borers. 
(Experiment Station, N J.) 

appearance. The eggs are laid during the summer upon the 
bark near the surface of the ground. The little borer or grub 
begins eating under the bark of the trunk and becomes 
nearly three-fourths of an inch long by fall. A gummy for- 
mation indicates the presence of the borer. The watchful 
grower will also find saw-dust-like borings escaping in some 



218 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

places near the surface of the ground. Very frequently the 
insects work in the sap wood just below the surface of the 
ground. 

Washing the trunks with lime-sulfur in the spring and 
summer is tried by many growers. It will probablj^ protect 
the orchard from a large per cent of the borers. The more 
common and more certain remedy is to dig into the trees 
for borers in September or Octpber and again in April or 
May. This is done by digging the dirt from the trunks of 




Fio. 13G. — Tlie flat-head apple-borer: a, larva; b, pupa; d, adult. 
(From Smith's "Economic Entomology.") 



the trees a few inches below the ground level. After a few 
days dig with a knife or wire for the borers under the bark 
wherever the gum or borings may be seen. 

Grafting wax maj' be rubbed over these wounds, and the 
dirt thrown back and heaped up around the tree. Heaping 
up the dirt will cause the next brood to work a little higher 
where they can be more (^asily discovered. 

Apple Tree Borers. — There are two kinds of beetles that 
attack the trunk of the apple tree and eat in the wood : the 
flat-headed and the round-headt^l borer. TluMr work is 
similar, but the grubs and beetles are quite different, as 
shown in Figs. 136, 137. The flat-headed borer attacks a 



INSECTS 



■215) 



great many trees besides apple trees. The round-headed 
borer is a serious enemy of the apple and quince and is 
sometimes found in pear trees. The grubs of these borers 
live in the tree trunk about three years and then change to 
the pupa stage a few weeks before emerging as adults. 

The best remedy is to keep the adults from laying their 
eggs on the trunks. This is done by tying tar paper or 
wire gauze about the trunks. The bottom of the material 
should be slightly in the ground and the top securely tied 
to prevent the beetles from crawling in. These protectors 






Fig. 137 



-Round-head apple-borer: a, larva; b, pupa; c, adult. (From Smith's 
"Economic Entomology.") 



should be renewed before the egg-laying season of June and 
July. Above these screens the trees should be whitewashed 
or sprayed with lime-sulfur. 

The San Jose Scale. — These insects were probably 
introduced into this country from China and were first 
found in America near the city of San Jose (Ho-sa'), California. 

This insect is probably the worst enemy of fruit trees. 
It has sucking mouth parts, and not only sucks the sap 
from leaves and fruit but also from the more tender 
branches. 

The breeding season of the insect lasts throughout the 
warm summer months, being checked only by frost. Large 



220 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

numbers of young are produced by a single insect, each one 
of which in turn begins to produce young in five or six weeks 
from birth. It is thus seen that where healthy insects of 
this species are not killed before the warm weather begins, 
the numbers may be so great by fall as to destroy or seriously 
threaten the trees of the vicinity. 

These scale insects thrive not only on orchard and nursery 
fruit trees, but are also found on hedges, some kinds of shade 
trees, and roadside shrubs. This makes it difficult to totally 
destroy the pest in any section where it has become firmly 
established. 

Remedies.- — As this pest does not eat the tissues of the 
plant, poisonous sprays are not effective. The covering with 
which the insect naturally protects itself makes it a very 
difficult enemy to fight. A few good spray mat(^rials have 
now been found. Soluble oil is on the market under different 
trade names; in these the oil and water are caused to mix 
readily by use of certain chemicals. 

Lime-suljvr sprays are very successful in combating the 
San Jose scale. One application is made in winter or early 
spring before the buds of the trees begin to swell. Another 
application is sometimes made in June or July when the 
young, tender insects are abundant. This summer spray is 
made very weak to avoid danger to the leaves. 

The early spring spraj'ing and also the summer spraying 
will be very valuable as a means of combating several dis- 
eases such as peach scab and apple scab, and brown rot of 
peaches. Thus the fighting of the San Jose scale is not, in 
itself, a very serious problem for the fruit grower. 

Exercise. — Insect Specimens. — Let pupils bring to school 
at an 3' time insects which are injurious to plants in the home 
garden or elsewhere. The leaflets issued l)y the Bureau 
of Entomology at Washington will be helpful in the study 
of the insects thus collected. 

Exercise. — Preserving Specimens. — Insect specimens 



INSECTS 221 

may be killed by placing them in poison bottles for a few 
hours. These bottles should have wide mouths and good 
corks. A piece of cyanide of potassium, which is such a 
deadly poison that even breathing its fumes will kill insects 
and other animals, may be fastened in the bottle by pouring 
over it some wet plaster-of-Paris. A piece of the poison as 
large as a hickory-nut is enough for a four-ounce bottle. 
Let the plaster dry and then cork up the bottle. After 
insects have been killed they may be pinned into a cigar box, 
in the bottom of which has been fastened a sheet of thick cor- 




FlG. 138. — A caterpillar-hunting ground beetle and its larva. (From Smith's 
"Insect Friends and Enemies.", 

rugated paste-board. A good way of preserving large butter- 
flies, moths, and other large insects is shown in Fig. 124 B. 
Beneficial Insects. — Not all insects are harmful. There 
are indeed a great many groups that are beneficial in one way 
or another. The silk worm produces a product worth many 
millions of dollars annually in the commerce of the world. 
Honey bees store large quantities of honey used as human 
food, and also carry pollen from blossom to blossom, thus 
increasing the crops of fruit. The ground beetle (Fig. 138), 
tiger beetle, and some other insects prey upon other injurious 
insects and thus act as a balance in Nature's forces for the 
control of the enemies of man. The spotted lady-beetle (Fig. 
139) destroys many thousands of the San Jose scale insects. 



222 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



There are certain parasitic insects living on the more 
injurious forms and this aids materially in the control of 
insect pests. (See Figs. 140, 141.) 

Exercise. — Parasites of Insects. — In the breeding cages 
or in the boxes where cocoons are kept, watch carefully for 
the indications of parasites. Some of them may be similar 
to one or more figures in this chapter. 

Birds as Insect Destroyers. — Many kinds of birds are 
great friends to the farmer and his crops, because of the great 
numbers of noxious insects which they destroy. Some birds 




Fig. 139. — 15-spotted lady-beetle: a, lan'a; b, pupa; d-g, adult varieties. (From 
Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



do harm at one season by eating fruits or grain, but they com- 
pensate for it at other times by eating insect pests. The 
majority of the land birds eat insects at all times; but during 
the nesting season their food is largely composed of insects. 
Exercise. — Common Birds. — The members of the class 
should name and briefly describe the birds that they know. 
Have the food-habits of these commonest birds reported by 
some one. United States Farmers' Bulletin 54, "Some 
Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture," will be 
very heli)ful. Coiisideral^le interest should be taken in the 
protection of insect destroyers. 



INSECTS 



223 



Toads as Insect Destroyers. — The common toad, found 
in th? garden, lives almost entirely upon insects. He eats 
enormous numbers, most of which are of the harmful kinds. 




Fig. 140. — Digger-wasp can-jdng a cicada to its home. 
Fig. 141. — Sphinx caterpillar covered with cocoons of parasites. 
"Insect Friends and Enemies.") 



(From Smith's 



Toads have no harmful habits. They should be protected 
because of the good they do. A single full-grown toad will 
do several dollars' worth of good in a garden each season. 



REVIEW. 

1. Describe the structure of insects, as to body, wings, legs, and 
parts on the head. 

2. Tell of the two kinds of mouth parts of insects. 

3. Why cannot insects that have sucking mouth parts be poisoned ? 
How are they usually controlled ? 

4. Tell what you can about the skeleton of an insect. 

5. Tell how insects grow. 

6. Tell what is meant by the terms complete change and incom- 
plete change in the development of insects. 

7. Name the four stages in the life of insects having complete 
change. 

8. Tell what you can about the larval stage. 

9. Tell what you can about the pupal stage. 

10. To what forms of larvai do these terms apply: caterpillar, grub, 
maggot, wriggler, nymph ? 



224 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

11. Tell how malarial mosquitoes develop that disease and impart 
it to man. 

12. Tell two differences between malarial mosquitoes and common 
mosquitoes. 

13. Tell of three or more ways of preventing the spread of human 
diseases by mosquitoes. 

14. Tell how mosquito wrigglers breathe. 

15. Describe the life development of the house fly. 

16. How do flies spread typhoid and other human diseases? 

17. What are the remedies to be used against the fly? 

18. Tell how to prevent damage from clothes moths. 

19. Describe the damage done by grain moths. 

20. In what ways are chinch bugs injurious? 

21. What are the different means of control? 

22. Tell of the injuries from potato beetles. How are these insects 
controlled ? 

23. Describe the life and work of the codling-moth. 

24. Tell at just what time to spray to fight the spring brood. Why? 

25. What injury is done by the curculio beetles ? 

26. What are some of the ways of fighting it ? 

27. Tell how the peach tree borer may be found. 

28. What are the remedies for this insect? 

29. Name two kinds of apple tree borers and tell what harm they do. 

30. Why is it so difficult to control the San Jose scale? 

31. What two materials are used to spray the scale? When are they 
used? 

32. Name some groups of beneficial insects, and tell of their benefits. 

References. — Leaflets of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology. U. S. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 120, Insects Affecting Tobacco; 127, Important 
Insecticides; 145, Carbon Bisulfid as an Insecticide; 178, Insects 
Injurious in Cranberry Culture; 196, Usefulness of the American Toad; 
284, Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky 
Mountains; 290, 314. 344, all on The Cotton Boll Weevil; 456, Our 
Grosbeaks and Their Value to Agriculture; 459, House Flies. 



CHAPTER XX. 

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING. 

Diseases of Plants. — There are a great inanj' diseases 
which attack the plants grown in field, garden, and orchard. 
These diseases are of three main types: (1) Those which are 
produced by a fungous growth of minute plants, on the 
tissues of the useful plants, examples of which are rust on 
leaves and smut on grain. (2) Those produced by bacteria, 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 2^25 

as in the case of pear blight and peach yellows. (3) Those 
due to poor drainage or poor soil or unfavorable climate; 
these would not be contagious. 

Prevention of Plant Diseases. — The spores or organisms 
from which the fungous diseases develop may be killed by 
special spray materials. These should be killed before they 
get into the leaves or other parts of the plants. Spraying is 
a means of preventing disease rather than curing it. The 
spray materials are made just strong enough to kill the dis- 
ease germs and weak enough not to harm the useful plants 
that are sprayed. (See Appendix for formulas of spray 
mixtures.) 

Exercise. — Studying Plant Diseases. — Specimens of va- 
rious diseases found on fruits, vegetables, trees, and other 
plants may be brought to school. Let the pupils name all 
of these possible. If there are any that seem to be serious 
diseases in the neighborhood at the time they may be re- 
ported or specimens sent to the State Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station of that State. Ask that Station for special 
bulletins telling how to control the particular disease. 

Brown Rot of Peaches. — This disease causes decay of 
the fruit and the blighting of the twigs of peaches, plums, 
and cherries. Fig. 142 shows the rot on peaches. The trouble 
with peaches is confined almost exclusively to the early 
varieties. After the rotted fruits have become dry they 
cUng to the trees, and thus hold the spores over until the 
next year. Remove all such dried fruits from the trees in 
the winter. The sprayings made to control San Jose scale 
will help to keep this disease in check. 

Peach Scab or Black Spot. — This disease gives the fruit 
a sooty appearance, because of the presence of grayish black 
spots. The scab may become so bad as to cause the fruits 
to crack open. It is thought that this disease is worse in 
orchards where the air-drainage or ventilation is poor. 
Spray with the self-boiled lime-sulfur mixture, given in the 
15 



226 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Appendix as the 8 — 8 — 50 formula, just after the blossom 
calyx is shed from the young fruits (Fig. 143). Repeat this 
spray onc{> or twice at intervals of three weeks. 

Peach Leaf Curl. — In early spring, when this disease 
occurs, the leaves become thickened, curled, and distorted 
(Fig. 144). The diseased leaves turn brown and fall off. 
The loss of leaves from this cause may be very severe in the 
worst cases. The spraying for scale insects will usually 
keep the leaf curl within control. 



Fig. 142 




-Bro\vn-r<it ili-fa-^e of the prach. fresh fruit above, last year's fruit 
clinging to twigs. (Experimeiil Station, N. J.) 



Peach Yellows. — The exact cause of this disease is not 
yet definitely known, although a great deal of study has 
been given to it. The real cause may be due to some form 
of bacteria, as the disease is very contagious in the peach 
orchard. In the earlier stages of the disease the leaves on 
some shoots are very abundant and small. Fig. 145 shows 
the appearance in spring. Wiry shoots are sent out from 
the main branches. The leaves may even become yellowish- 
green in color, and quite sticky. In advanced stages of 
yellows the fruit appears ripe much ahead of its time; the 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



oo-- 



skin and flesh are spotted and blotched with red, the flavor 
being bitter or insipid. The l)est remedy is to cut out the 
diseased tree as soon as detected, and burn it. Disinfect 
instruments used to help prevent spread to healthy trees. 

Little=Peach. — This disease of the peach is somewhat 
like yellows, the leaves becoming yellowish-green and drop- 
ping as in yellows. But there is one important difference. 
Instead of appearing ripe too 
early, the fruits remain very small 
and are green much too long. 
(See Fig. 146.) The diseased 
trees should be burned as in the 
case of yellows. 

Apple Scab. — This disease of 
the apple is very bad in nearly 
all regions where the crop is 
grown for market. It is very 
similar to the scab disease found 
on pears. It attacks both leavers 
and fruit. This disease ajipears :il 
blossom time and soon after, caus- 
ing large numbers of the small 
apples to drop from the tr(M'. 
The fruits that cling on may be- 
come affected and will be small, 
irregular, rough, and blotched. 
Irregular, roughened, brown 
spots, more or less running together, are formed on the sur- 
face of the apple. The roughened or scabby area may cover 
all one side of the apple and even cause it to crack. It is from 
this scabby appearance that the disease takes its common 
name. The disease on the leaves causes sooty spots on the 
under side. Later these leaves become yellow and drop from 
the tree, in severe cases taking most of the leaves from 
the tree. 




I''ii,, I 1.,. i .1 : . iim- 

mer .spruy on peat'li and plum, aa 
llie calyx is being shed from young 
fruit. (Experiment Station, N.J.) 



228 



PflODUCTIVE FARMING 



This disease is prevented by spraying in early spring 
before the buds swell, with lime-sulfur preparation. This 
is repeated with a weaker solution just before the blossom 
buds open, and again just after the petals of the blossoms 
fall to the ground. 




FiQ. 144. — Leaf-curl disease. Healthy tw-ig on right, the disease prevented by 
lime-sulfur spray. (Lxperiment Station, N. J.) 



Exercise. — Studying Apple Scab. — Have some one bring 
to school a few samples of scabby apples from the grocery 
store or home orchard. The class should all become familiar 
with the ways in which the fruit is affected by the scab. 

Apple Rust. — Leaves attacked by apple rust appear as 
thougii coveretl in blotches by a heavy coat of iron rust. 
The whole under surface may present a rusty appearance 
(Fig. 147). The trouble may spread to tender twigs and 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



'■2^19 



even to the fruits in some cases. The life of this disease is 
interesting, and a knowledge of it leads to the proper remedy. 
The apple rust fungus lives a portion of its life upon the 
apple tree or tlie quince tree, as already described, but it 
appears in a very different form upon red cedar trees that 
may be growing near tlu^ orchard. The growth on the cedar 
tree is popularly known as cedar apple. These cedar apples 
in spring appear as large masses of yellow or orange-colored 




Fia. 145. — Twins of peaoh in sprinE-time. Two at riclit afTcrtoil willi ". yellows, " 
lioaltliy twigs at left. (lv\peiiiiieiil Station, N.J.) 



jelly clinging to the branches of the cedar tree; in winter 
they are small, brown or purple galls. These enlarge next 
spring. It is from these cedar apples that the disease spreads 
to the orchard. 

If this disease is very prevalent in the orchard, it nuiy be 
best to remove the cedar trees near the orchard. This would 
greatly check or stamp out the disease. Spraying as for 
appU; scab will perhaps aid a little in checking the apple 
rust, but is not a complete remedy. 



230 PRODUCTIVE FAR^IING 

Exercise. — Cedar Apples. — In the fall or winter stu- 
dents may find specimens of the winter form of the cedar 
apple, above described, on the cedar trees near apple orchards. 
If these are found use the specimens to illustrate the lesson 
on apple disease. 

Potato Scab. — On the surface of Irish potatoes in the 
winter time may be found scabby-looking spots or areas 
caused by the potato scab fungus. The disease when very 
bad produces deep depressions or pits in the surface of the 




Fig. 146. — Disease called " little-peach." Healthy fruit above. 
(Experiment Station, N. J.) 

tubers. The crop yield may be greatly reduced by the 
attacks of this disease. The spread of the disease may be in 
several ways: 

1. The germs of potato scab will grow more rapidly 
when there has been a heavy application of fresh stable 
manure to the field just before the potatoes are planted. It 
is better to manure the field one year in advance if possible, 
or to use some well-rotted manure. 

2. When lime is applied to the soil the disease will likely 
be worse on the potato crop. Green manure plowed under 
in preparing the field for potatoes will help to counteract 
this action of the lime. 

3. Soils from which a very scabby crop of potatoes has 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 231 

been harvested recently will probably cause the next crop 
to be diseased in like manner. Rotation of crops is, therefore, 
advisable. Do not use beets and other root crops in this 
rotation, as the scab disease also attacks them. 

4. Seed potatoes are usually more or less scabby or have 
the germs of the disease upon them. If these are planted 
without treatment the disease will likely be introduced into 
the soil. 

The treatment of seed 'potatoes to prevent the planting of 
scab disease is now a very cheap and simple process. The 




Fig. 147. — Apple rust on leaf and twig. 

seed potatoes are soaked for two hours in a solution of forma- 
lin. This solution is made by mixing one pint of the strong- 
est formalin in thirty-two gallons of water. This kills the 
disease germs but does no harm to the potatoes. The liquid 
may be used for several sacks of potatoes. 

Exercise. — Showing Potato Scab. — Specimens of Irish 
potatoes having the scab disease should be brought to school 
and shown to all the students. 

Grain Smut. — In fields of grain, when it is in head, may 
be often seen a black powder which clings to the husks of 
the grain (Fig. 148). This black powder is the fruit of a 
disease growing inside of the grain stalks. The disease is 



232 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



called grain smut, for it causes the black appearance, like 

stove soot, on the heads of grain. Oats and barley are often 

very badly injured by this disease. 

Any farmer can prevent his grain from having the disease 

by a very simple and cheap process. The seed should be 

treated in a liquid before it 
is planted. The liquid used 
is formalin and water. If 
into a common barrel are 
poured twenty gallons of 
water and then one half- 
pint of strong formalin is 
thoroughly mixed with it, 
the liquid will be ready for 
use. The seed grain is placed 
in a loose sack and then 
lowered into the barrel of 
liquid; after about ten min- 
utes all of the black smut or 
spores in the seed will be 
killed. The sack is then 
raised up and allowed to 
drain for a few minutes. 
The wet seed is then spread 
out to dry before it is 
l)hinted. This drying may 
be done on a clean barn 
floor, in a wagon-box, or on 
a cloth stack-cover spread 

on the ground. The seed should be spread out thin enough 

so that it will dry before it begins to sprout. 

The same liquid may be used for many sacks of seed, 

so that the cost of treating enough seed for a large field is 

not great. 

Exercise.— Treating Oats for Smut.— It is suggested that 




Fig. 148. — Loose smut of oats mounted 
on fotton under glass. (A. E.) 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



233 



the pupils bring some oats in a sack, and treat them in a 
pail of water with a little formalin in it. 

Exercise. — Showing Grain Smut. — Perhaps sample heads 
of diseased grain can be brought to school. If so, preserve 
them as shown in Fig. 148. Some one should bring samples 
of corn smut disease to show to the class. Corn smut is not 
prevented by the formalin treatment. 

Exercise. — Treating Seed Potatoes. — The pupils may 
bring a pail and a few potatoes from home. A half- 
ounce (four teaspoonfuls) of formalin should be added to 




Fig. 149. — Spra\-iiiK orrh.inl tn-n-; in o;u'l\ vpriiic:, f"r si'alc ins 
(l';.\prrinifiit Station, N.J.) 



ts, witli liarri'l pnnip. 



one gallon of water. Soak the potatoes in this mixture 
for two hours. Urge the pupils to tell of the method 
at their homes. 

Spraying. — Under ordinary conditions a bearing apple 
orchard should be sprayed at least three times each spring 
and perhaps once in the summer. 

The first spraying is to bo made before the buds swell in 
very early spring (Fig. 149). This is to prevent scab and 
similar diseases and to kill the San Jose scale insects. For 
this spraying it is well to use either soluble oil at the rate of 
one gallon of the oil to fifteen gallons of water, or to use the 



234 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



lime-sulfur solution. Commercial concentrated lime-sulfur 
is diluted at the rate of one gallon to nine of water. 

The second spraying is made just before the blossom opens 




Fig. 150. — A. Too .soon to .';pray for apple worm or codling-iiioUi. Spray for 
apple scab at thi-s stage or before. 

B. Apples in full bloom. Spraying; now would poison tlie honey bees. 

C. Petals just fallen; just the riglit time to spray for apple worm. Poison 
will fall in the calyx cup of the blossom and kill the worm as soon as hatched. 

D. Too late to spray for apple worm. The calyx is closed and apples turned 
down. (E-\periment Station, N. J.) 



(Fig. 150, A). It is to control apple scab disease and to kill all 
leaf-eating insects. This time use one and one-half gallons 
of strong lime-sulfur solution and three pounds of arsenate 



DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 



235 



of lead to fifty gallons of water. This will accomplish the 
two purposes at the same time. 

The third spring spraying is made just after the petals 
fall from the blossoms. Its chief purpose is to control the 
codling-moth. It also aids in preventing the trouble from 
apple scab. As there are two purposes, use the combined 
sprays as in the second spring spraying. Study Figs. 150 A, 
B, C, D together. 

For the control of codling-moth on fall and winter varie- 
ties of apples, a midsummer spraying is advisable. For this 




Fig. 151. — Summer spraying by school students. (Agricultural Education.) 



use two pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water. 

Principles of Spraying. — Always select, if possible, a 
bright clear day without much wind for all kinds of spraying. 

Do the work carefully and thoroughly. Let all parts of 
the plants be touched with the spray materials. 

Use special n^ozzles which throw the materials into fine 
mists. Learn of the latest and best nozzles and spraying 
apparatus by writing to the Agricultural Experiment Station 
of the State. Always consider what are the special purposes 
of the particular spraying, and use the proper materials for 
those purposes. 



236 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

An insecticide is to be used for insects, and a fungicide 
used for the plant diseases. These may be combined into 
one spray material. 

Weaker sprays are necessary on plants when the leaves 
are on; stronger sprays when the trees are dormant. 

Lime-sulfur is used both as a winter spray and as a sum- 
mer spray, but the strength must be made to suit the con- 
dition of the trees or other plants. It is a fungicide and also 
a special insecticide for the control of scale insects. 

Soluble oils are for ^\dnter use only and are especially 
for scale insects. 

Bordeaux mixture alone is a fungicide and, in different 
strengths, may be used either when the trees are dormant or 
when in leaf. 

Paris green and arsenate of lead are two of the most 
common insect poison materials. They may be used in com- 
bination with lime-sulfur and also with Bordeaux mixture. 
(See spray formulas in the Appendix.) 

REVIEW. 

l.-What are the three main causes of plant diseases? 

2. Name two fungous diseases of the apple. 

3. Name five diseases of the peach. 

4. Describe peach yellows and tell of the best remedy. 

5. Tell how to prevent apple scab. 

6. Tell of the relation of cedar apples to the rust disease of apples. 

7. Give four causes of potato scab and the remedy for each. 

8. Describe the treatment of seed potatoes to prevent the planting 
of scab disease. 

9. Describe the treatment of oats to prevent smut disease. 

10. Give the objects for each of the three spring sprayings of apple 
trees. 

11. Give the material to use at each time. 

12. Give all the principles of spraying that you can. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 219, Lessons from the 
Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904; 221, Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry; 
243, Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits; 250, 
The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat and Loose Smut of Oats; 
283, Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling-Moth in the Ozarks; 
345, Some Common Disinfectants; 435, P. 28, Lime-Sulfur. 



PART II. 
ANIMAL PRODUCTION 



CHAPTER XXI. 
IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS. 

In man's efforts to secure for his use the best types of 
live stock or farm animals he has produced the various breeds 
of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry. He has intelli- 
gently selected those animals which showed a tendency to 
produce the desired qualities. The correct principles of 
breeding have been applied, somewhat as an art and some- 
times also as a science. It is important that we have animals 
suited to a definite purpose, rather than for several or all 
purposes. Men want horses for draft and for speed; some 
cows for milk, others for beef; some sheep for wool, others 
for mutton; some swine for bacon and lean meat, others for 
lard; some hens for eggs, others for meat. 

A Breed. — A group of animals which have special charac- 
teristics of habit, color, and form is called a breed. They have 
a tendency to transmit such characteristics without much 
change to their offspring. The best breed to keep is always 
the one best suited to the desired purpose. There are so many 
breeds that one may be chosen for each particular need. 

Laws of Breeding. — There are several laws of nature 
which govern in a large measure the maintenance of good 
breeds and the improvement of live stock. 

The law of heredity is one of these. It means that animals 
inherit from their ancestors certain forms, characteristics, 
qualities, habits, and tendencies. These may be either desir- 
able or undesirable and are frequently both. That "like 
produces like" is as true with animals as with plants. If 

237 



238 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

this law were an absolute one, man would find it impossible 
to make any improvements in his animals by careful selection. 

Variation among farm animals is a natural tendency for 
them to differ from each other and from their parents. No 
two calves in the barn are alike. The pigs in a litter may look 
alike when young, but the attendant can soon point out 
differences. This tendency to vary allows stockmen to select 
the desired tj^pes and produce, in time, the animals desired 
for special purposes. 

Exercise. — Variation Among Animals. — Let pupils tell 
of variations in color or other marked characters among 
pure-bred stock such as cattle, poultry, or s\\'ine. Care 
should be used to bring out the law of variation. 

Reversioyi is the tendency for young animals to exhibit 
characters of distant ancestors, which their o\xn parents 
did not possess. 

Sometimes there are characters present in certain indi- 
vidual animals which are not like anj' of the animals of the 
breed. Such cases are called mutations or sports. Such v^ry 
odd or different characters are not always transmitted by 
animals to their offspring. When such new characters are 
given to the offspring they may become fixed and give rise 
to a new line or strain of animals in a breed. The hornless 
or polled Shorthorn cattle and the polled Hereford cattle 
were first started from sports. Now the hornless character 
of those strains has become fixed. The groups may even be 
considered as distinct breeds. 

Pure=Bred Animals. — These are animals which have been 
bred along a certain line or \\nthin the bounds of the breed 
for many generations. The vulgar term full-blood should 
not be used to express purity of blood in an animal. The 
term thoroughbred is also incorrectly used in this connection. 
This name belongs to a breed of race-horses which originated 
in England. 

Grades are animals which are not pure bred but are part 



IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 239 

native. A high grade animal is one which is more than half 
pure bred. Native stock are those in which there is no certain, 
traceable blood of any special breed. They may be a mixture 
of sever-al breeds. They are often called "Scrubs." 

Cross-bred animals are the result of crossing two pure- 
bred animals of different breeds, as a Holstein- Jersey cross 
in cattle, or a Plymouth Rock-Cochin cross in poultry. 

Pedigrees. — These are statements of the lineage or ances- 
tors of animals. Records are kept of all the animals of 
the pure breeds, if the owners care to register them. Owners 
of stock of a certain breed form an Association, the officers 
of which establish herd books in which records are kept of 
the animals and their offspring owned by the members. 
(See the sample Holstein pedigree in the Appendix.) 

Exercise. — Stock Pedigrees. — Some pupils in the school 
may be able to bring to the teacher a written or printed 
pedigree of farm animals owned by some one in the neighbor- 
hood. The value of such a complete record may then be 
made clear to the class, because of its local application. 

Bad Effects ot' Crossing. — It is far too common a practice 
for farmers to cross the stock of two breeds. Where a herd 
is graded up toward one breed, as Jerseys, they are then 
crossed with Holsteins or Shorthorns, the hope being to 
increase the quantity of milk. The result is usually a dis- 
appointment and the practice is a bad one. When there are so 
many good breeds of each kind of farm animals it is unwise to 
try to blend them by doing such crossing. Instead of a 
blending effect, the stockman often gets the extreme charac- 
teristics emphasized by close contrast in one individual. 
For example, the head, hairy feet and legs, and large hoofs of 
the Clydesdale are sometimes found on the slender body of 
a race-horse. The more extreme the crosses or the greater 
the difference in type between the breeds used in the cross, 
the greater will be the number of failures. The successful 
crosses are few. Occasionally the bad effects of a cross do 



240 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

not show until the second generation. Then the disappoint- 
ment of the owner is emphasized, and the time lost in his 
failure is greater. 

Keeping Pure Breeds. — All stock breeders should keep 
pure-bred animals. Each breed has been produced because 
the animals are the best for some particular purpose. The 
breeder should determine what his purpose is and then choose 
the proper pure breed for that purpose. The animals of that 
breed are sure to be more satisfactory than any cross breeds 
or grades. Pure-bred animals have fixed characteristics 
and may be expected to come true to type. The superior 
qualities of the parents will be found in the offspring. The 
profit derived from pure-bred animals is usually much greater 
than from natives or from grades. 

REVIEW. 

1 . What is meant by special purpose animals ? Give examples. 

2. How have these been developed ? 

3. What is meant by a breed ? Which is always the best one ? 

4. What is heredity ? What is variation ? 

5. What benefits arise from the law of variation ? 

6. What is meant by reversion ? 

7. What are mutations or sports ? What use is made of them in 
forming new breeds ? 

8. Define grades and natives. 

9. What is a pedigree ? 

10. Why should farmers not cross the pure breeds of farm animals ? 

11. Give reasons for breeders keeping pure-bred animals instead 
of native stock, or scrubs. 



CHAPTER XXII. 
HORSES. 



There were horses in America at the time of the dis- 
covery by Columbus. All horses that are now found here 
are imported or are offspring of imported stock. Some horses 
were brought by Columbus on his second voyage, others were 
brought by Cortez, by DeSoto, and by French, Dutch, and 
English settlers. The wild ponies of the Southwest, called 



HORSES 241 

Texas ponies, are probably descendants of horses abandoned 
by DeSoto. 

Most of the pure breeds of horses found here at the 
present time have originated in the Old World; but America 
has established a distinct breed of saddle horses and trotters, 
and a carriage breed is being developed. 

Types of Horses. — There are several types of horses: 
(1) Those for heavy work are called the draft type. (2) Those 
of light build, for quick action, are called the light horse type. 
(3) There are many that would not fall into either of these 
two extreme types, but would be somewhat intermediate 
between them. Such horses may be grouped into a third 
type, sometimes called dual-purpose or general-purpose 
horses. The descriptive points of the draft horse and the 
light horse are given in the score cards at the end of this 
chapter. 

Pure Breeds of Horses. — The pure breeds of horses may 
be grouped as follows: draft breeds, coach breeds, light 
breeds, and pony breeds. The market types of horses, 
whether they be pure-bred or not, may be classified as draft, 
coach, roadster, saddle, and pony. 

The draft breeds are all large, heavy horses, ranging in 
weight from thirteen hundred to two thousand pounds. 
They are well built for heavy teaming. The leading breeds 
of the draft group are Clydesdale, Percheron, English Shire, 
Suffolk Punch, and Belgian. 

Coach Horses. — The heavy carriage or coach breeds 
include the large, active, stylish coach horses, such as the 
Hackney, German and French coach, the Cleveland Bay 
or Yorkshire coach. 

Light horse breeds include the Thoroughbred, the Ameri- 
can trotting horse, and the American saddle horse 

Pony breeds are the Welsh, the Shetland, and Exmoor. 
These differ considerably in size, habits, and other special 
characters. Besides these pony breeds there are several 
16 



242 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

pony types which have not been kept pure in their breeding. 
Among these may be mentioned the broncho of the Western 
plains, the Indian pony of the Northwest, and the Mexican 
or Indian mustang of the Southwest. 

Percherons (Fig. 152). — This is a French breed of draft 
horses, identical with or nearly the same as the French and 
the Norman draft horses. Percherons are gray or ])lack when 



W4 


^Mm^^> 


, . 


ir^H 




i^ 


^ 


MBh^V 


W^mj^^^/^P^^^J^VA 


^ -^^wi 


'"T ,'4 


Sp" 



Fig. 152. — Black Percheruus in liariier-?.. Larue, gentle liraft lior>e.>; well 
suited to use on farms. 

young, becoming lighter in color with age. The dark colors 
are preferred, and are more common. Dapple grays of this 
breed are much admired. The body is compact, short, and 
thick; the head is of moderate size; the legs are rather short 
and very muscular, with short hair. The feet are smaller 
than in the Clydes. Percherons are very easily managed and 
become very gentle. Little, if any, "breaking" is necessary. 
They are much used on the farms of the middle West and 



HORSES 



243 



Northwest. Grades of this breed are used in great numbers 
in city dray work in America. 

Clydesdales. — This (Fig. 153) heavy draft breed dates 
back to its origin in Scotland two hundred years ago. The 
general color is bay or brown, but sorrels and blacks may be 
found among the Clydes. Usually there are some white 
markings on the legs and a strip of white in the face. The 




Tig. 153. — Pure -bred Clydesdale mare. Heavy draft type. 



form of the body is long, smooth, and symmetrical. The 
height is often sixteen or seventeen hands. (Four inches is 
called a hand by horsemen.) The thick, stout legs are heavily 
fringed below the knees and hocks with long, shaggy hair. 
The Clydes are well suited for heavy farm work, because 
of their strength, rapid walking gait, and their gentle dis- 
position. 

English Shires. — There are no very m-arked differences 
between the Scotch Clydesdale and the English Shire horses. 



244 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

The colors and markings and the form are much the same 
in the two breeds. The EngHsh Shire is heavier, more com- 
pact and the legs shorter. They are not so common in 
America as their Scotch ancestors. 

Suffolk Punch. — This is another English breed of draft 
horses. The color is chestnut. They are rotund in build 
and are seldom so large and heavy as the Percherons. The 
shoulders, neck and legs are of the true draft type. As yet 
this is not a common breed in America, 



W^ 




' '^^^ /,-->. '.-..••--•■S 


^.'■/^r,' ,: 


p^^^^^^i^^p^ 


[^ ji/l'ifl#. 


^Kffl| 





Fig. 154. — Fancy dri-^-in? team, French coach breed. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 

Belgian Horse. — This is probably the heaviest of our 
draft breeds. The body is more blocky, the breast wider, 
and the neck thicker than in either the Percherons or the 
Clydesdales. The color is roan, brown or bay. The breed 
has not come into very popular use in America. 

Coach Horses Described. — The Cleveland Bay is the 
oldest or most distinctive breed among the coach horses. 
The color is bay; feet and legs dark, mane and tail black. 
They are tall, being sixteen to seventeen hands; weight 1100 
to 1300 pounds. 

The coach or cab horses used in cities are large, active, 
and stylish, and are highly valued for heavy harness duty 
and for general driving. They are required to haul medium 



HORSES 



24.5 



loads and to travel at a moderate trot. The French coach 
(Fig. 154), the German coach, and the Hackney all serve 
these purposes very well. The German coach horses are 
less used in America than the others, probably because of 
their greater weight. The French coach is bay, chestnut or 
black ; and the German coach brown, bay or black. 




Fig. 155. — Chaxnpion Hackney st:i 



The Hackney (Fig. 155) is used to grade up the native 
horses for coach purposes. He is much liked because of his 
striking and pleasing appearance and good temper. His ac- 
tion is very good, though not so quick as the trotter. The color 
is brown, chestnut, roan or gray, with some white markings. 

Thoroughbred. — The English race horse or Thoroughbred 
is the oldest of all pure l^reeds of horses, being a descendant 
of the Arabian stock of Asia. The American Thoroughbred 
found commonly in Kentucky and Tennessee is from the 



246 PRODUCTIVE FAR^HNG 

English breed. This breed is not excelled for speed and 
endurance. No other horse approaches the Thoroughbred 
in beauty, intelligence, and courage (Fig. 156). 

American Trotter. — This (Fig. 157) is just becoming 
well recognized as a distinct breed of light horses. They 
have much of the Thoroughbred or English race horse blood 
in them. Their special characters are much the same. The 
trotting gait has been more highly developed in the new 
breed, and they are destined to become the most popular 
light carriage horses of the future (Fig. 158). 

American Saddle Horse. — This horse (Fig. 159) has been 
called the Kentucky saddle horse. The South had much to 
do with the building up of this new breed. The blood in 
the breed traces back to the English Thoroughbred and 
the Canadian pacer. The best animals of the American 
saddle horse are quick in action, developing some speed 
if desired, and showing good style. They also have a variety 
of gaits suitable to the pleasure of their riders. Besides 
the walk, trot, and canter of other horses, they also develop 
the running-walk, the slow pace, the fox trot, and single-foot. 

The Mule. — A mule is a cross between a true donkey and 
a horse. The donkey is a native of Asia. Mules are raised 
in every part of the country, but particularly in the South. 
They are of several types, chiefly differing in size. Large 
mules are extensively used for all farm purposes. 

In the large mule markets of St. Louis, Chicago, Kansas 
City, Louisville, and New Orleans mules are classified some- 
what according to height, weight, and soundness. Those 
sold as plantation or farm mules are 16 to 16H hands high; 
next in order of size are the lumber or logging mules, railroad 
mules, levee or dock mules, and mine mules. The common 
thought regarding mules is that they are treacherous and 
apt to kick; this is not true, at least not more so than horses. 
They are usually very faithful and reliable. They are quick 
in movement and have wonderful endurance. 



HORSES 



247 




i !■.. l.j(j. — A Thoroughbred, "Oponsia," the true racing type. 




Fni. 107. — Aiuericau trutter, "George G." 



248 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fig. 15S. -Pure-bred Morgan. .The Morgans were formerly classed as a family of 
trotters; now they are bred as a distinct style. 




Fig. 159. — Champion saddle horse, "Confidence." 



HORSES 249 

Care and Management of Horses. — Much skill is required 
to care for horses in the best way. The appetite, condition 
and spirit of the horse must be watched. Regularity should 
be exercised in the matter of feed and water. 

The horse should be groomed and the coat kept in a 
healthy, sleek condition. 

Examine the shoulders of working animals and protect 
them against any suspected soreness. Such parts should 
be bathed with water and the cause of the soreness removed. 

Some one who would recognize the defects should exam- 
ine the teeth for sharp points and for decaying places. 
Swollen gums may be looked for if a horse refuses to eat 
corn. 

The feet of the horse should be carefully examined, 
particularly if lameness is detected. The hoofs should be 
trimmed when overgrown. The shoes should be regularly 
changed and always suited to the kind of work to be per- 
formed. 

Plenty of exercise must always be given to horses. The 
amount of grain in the feed should be reduced when the 
labor is lightened. The proper balance between the amount 
of exercise and feed should be maintained. 

The farm horse at light work may be given 6 to 10 pounds 
of oats and 7 to 10 pounds of hay daily. At medium work 
he should have 10 pounds of oats and 12 pounds of hay. 
When doing heavy work the amount should be increased 
to 12 or 13 pounds of oats and 12 or 13 pounds of hay 
daily. 

Inspecting Horses. — Horses are often unsound in one or 
more respects. They must not be considered sound if they 
have any physical defects or blemishes. A person intending 
to buy should always examine the animal thoroughly. 

Examining in Barn. — While a horse is in his stall he may 
show some of his acquired vices. Cribbing, or biting the 
stall, wind sucking, kicking the stall and persistent pawing 



250 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

are easily detected. Have him stand over to the other side 
of the stall; he may have string-halt and, if so, may be 
unable to lift the foot on the affected side. Look for the 
halter-pulling habit. 

Inspection Out of Doors. — Out in the yard, examine 
every part of the head, legs, feet, and body for diseases and 
defects. Go all over one side and then the other, being care- 
ful to overlook nothing. Look for colds or similar troubles 
about the nose, and swellings about the lower jaw and throat 
Examine the mouth for bad teeth. The mouth may show 
signs of a harsh bit. The eye should be free from bad dis- 
charges, and must be sensitive to light. Feel the top of the 
head for sores or swelling or any unusual tenderness which 
would make him hard to bridle. The withers and back may 
show scars of old running sores. Look for signs of collar boils 
on the shoulders. Scars on the knees may indicate a stum- 
bling habit. Watch closely for enlargements, wind-puffs, 
or other defects of the front legs. Feel for ring-bones, 
bunches or scars near the hoofs and just above them. 
Feel the cartilages at the back of the hoof on both 
inner and outer sides; if hard they are called side bones, 
and wall cause lameness. The hoof should be of proper 
shape, size and color, free from cracks, and the foot not 
contracted at the heel. The frog in the center of the 
sole should be elastic. 

The hind leg and foot can usually be examined without 
danger by having some one hold up the front foot on the 
same side of the body. Look for signs which indicate a kick- 
ing habit. The hocks are important and the two should be 
compared in detecting curly hocks, soft or bog-spavin, and 
bone-spavin. Compare the right and left legs below the 
hocks in looking for ring-bones, scratches, cracks or any 
defects of the hoof and foot. Walk, trot, and gallop the 
horse and watch closely to detect any irregularity in 
gait, due to lameness or bad habits. Heaves and other- 



HORSES 251 

difficult breathing may be noticed when the horse is 
exercised vigorously. 

Exercise. — Unsoundness in Horses. — Let pupils examine 
a horse for unsoundness. If a horse is brought to the school 
yard by some one, the class may assemble about the horse 
after studying the above lesson on "Inspecting Horses" 
(Fig. 160). 

Exercise. — Height and Other Measures. — With an ordi- 
nary tape line, measure the perpendicular distance from the 




Fig. IfiO. — Small buys exaxnining a horse fi)r unsoundness at the school. 
U-Vgricultural Educat'onJ 

top of the withers to the ground. How many hands high 
is the horse ? Compare the length of the head, from tip of 
nose to poll or crown, with the length of back from 
the withers to the hips. Two different horses may be 
compared as to width of hips, width of breast, girth, 
length of leg, and other corresponding parts which indicate 
symmetry. 

Exercise. — Age of Horses. — Let some pupils put on the 
blackboard the diagrams of the incisors of the horse to show 



^252 



PRODUCTWE FARinNG 



how age is indicated by the teeth. Such diagrams may be 
copied from a cyclopedia or from references mentioned in 
the Appendix of this book. 

Exercise. — Horse Judging.— A. number of lessons should 
be given in the judging of horses. Light and heavy types 




Fig. ICl. — A good draft type, explaining points. P, poll; Cr, crest; W, others; 
L, loin; H, hock; Bl, bone-spavin; B2, bog-spa\dn; P, pastern; F, fetlock; C, cannon; 
K, knee; Sp, shoulder point; M, muzzle. 



may be used at different times. Several different breeds 
may be studied in this way. The following score cards are 
to be used for this purpose. A sheet of lined paper may be 
used by students to keep scores on — one line being used for 
each of the numbers down the left side. Learn the names of 
parts from Fig. 16L 



HORSES 



253 



STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES. 



Perfect Student's 
Score. Score. 



1. Age 

General Appearance. 

2. Height 

3. Weight, over 1500 lbs. 

score according to age 

4. Form, broad, massive, low set, proportioned . . . 
6. Quality, bone clean, yet indicating sufficient 

substance; tendons distinct; skin and hair 
fine 

6. Temperament, energetic, good disposition 

Head and Neck. 

7. Head, lean, medium size 

8. Muzzle, fine; nostrils large, lips thin, even 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 

10. Forehead, broad, full 

11. Ears, medium size, well carried 

12. Neck, muscled; crest high; throat fine; windpipe 

large 

Forequarters. 

13. Shoulders, sloping, smooth, snug, extending 

into back 

14. Arm, short, thrown forward 

15. Forearm, heavily muscled, long, wide 

16. Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly 

supported 

17. Cannons, short, lean, wide, sinews large, set 

back 

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 

19. Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 

20. Feet, large, even size, straight; horn dense; 

dark color; sole concave; bars strong; frog 
large, elastic; heel wide, high, one-half 
length of toe 

21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from 

the point of the shoulder should fall upon 
the center of the knee, pastern and foot . . . 

Body. 

22. Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth . - 

23. Ribs, long, close, sprung 

24. Back, straight, short, broad 

25. Loin, wide, short, thick, straight 

26. Underline, flank low 



254 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES.-Continued. 



Hindquarters. 

27. Hips, smooth, wide 

28. Cuoup, long, wide, muscular 

29. Tail, attached high, well carried 

30. Thighs, muscular 

31. Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 

32. Gaskins or Lower Thighs, wide, muscled . . . 

33. Hocks, clean ut, \7ide, straight 

34. Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back. . . 

35. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 

36. Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 

37. Feet, large, even size; straight ; horn dense, dark 

color; sole concave; bars strong; frog large, 
elastic; heel wide, high, one-half length of 
toe 

38. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 

from the central ]ioint of each quarter 
should fall upon the center of all the joints 
and foot 

Action. 

39. Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 

40. Trot, rapid, straight, regular 

Total 




STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES. 





Perfect 
Score. 


Student's 
Score. 


1 . Age 


4 

4 
4 




General Appearance. 
2. Weight 




3. Height 




4. P'oRM, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 

5. Quality, bone clean, fine, yet indicating suffi- 

cient substance; tendons defined; hair and 
skin fine 

6. Temperament, active, good disposition 





HORSES 25o 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES.-Continued. 



Perfect 
Score. 



Student's 
Score. 



9. 
10. 
11. 

12. 



13. 

14. 
15. 
16. 

17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 



21. 



22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26, 



27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 

33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 



Head and Neck. 

Head, lean, straight. 

Muzzle, fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even. . . . 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, and 
not far apart 

Neck, muscled; crest high; throat fine; wind- 
pipe large 

Forequarters. 
Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle oblique, 

extending into back and muscled at withers . 

Arm, short, thrown forward 

Forearm, muscled, long, wide 

Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly 

supported 

Cannons, short, wide, sinews large, set back . . . 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 

Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45° 

Feet, medium, even size, straight, horn dense; 

frog large, elastic, bars strong; sole concave; 

heel wide, high 

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from 

the point of the shoulder should fall upon 

the center of the knee, pastern and foot 

Body. 

Chest, deep, low, large girth 

Ribs, long, sprung, close 

Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 

Loin, wide, short, thick 

Underline, long; flank rather low 

Hindquarters. 

Hips, smooth, wide, level 

Croup, long, wide, muscular 

Tail, attached high, well carried 

Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angles. . . 

Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 

Gaskins or Lower Thighs, long, wide, mus- 
cular 

Hocks, clearly defined; wide, straight 

Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back. . . 

Fetlocks, wide, straight 

Pasterns, strong, sloping 



256 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES.-Continued. 



37. Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; 

frog kirge, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; 
heel wide, high 

38. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 

from the central point of each quarter 
should fall upon the center of all the joints 
and foot 

Action. 

39. Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 

40. Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 

Total 




Student's 
Score. 



REVIEW. 

1. Mention the market classes of horses. 

2. What are the four groups of pure breeds of horses ? 

3. Name five draft breeds. 

4. Name four coach breeds. 

5. Name three light horse breeds, and three pony breeds. 

6. Tell all you can of the Percherons. What other two breeds 
are nearly like them ? 

7. Describe the Clydes and English Shires. 
Tell what you can of the Suffolk Punch; also the Belgian Draft. 
Describe the coach horse type. 
Which are the oldest pure-bred horses ? What can you say of 



What is a mule ? Where are they chiefly raised ? 

Why should a buyer examine a horse for soundness ? 

For what things should he look when the horse is in the stall ? 

What defects may be found about the nose, mouth, eyes, and 



9. 

10. 
them? 

IL Give the origin of the American trotter, and American saddle 
horse. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 
head? 

16. What faults may be looked for on the fore and hind legs and 
feet ? 

17. Give five characteristic features of a good draft horse. 

18. Give five in contrast with these for the light horse type. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 170, Principles of Horse 
Feeding; 4.")1, Draft Horses, and Careof Marcs and Foals. U. S. Bureau 
of Animal Industry Bulletin 37. Market Classes of Horses; Circular 137, 
The Preservation of Our Native Types of Horses. 



CATTLE 257 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
CATTLE. 

The improved breeds of cattle of to-day were developed 
from the native types found in Western Europe, chiefly in 
Great Britain. There are many named breeds, but only 
a few have gained a prominent place among stockmen. The 
most important are classified as (1) beef breeds, (2) dual- 
purpose or general-purpose breeds, (3) dairy breeds. Grade 
animals of the pure breeds may be obtained by the use of 
pure bred males of the breed desired. Good high grades 
always give better results than scrubs or natives, either for 
milk or for beef. 

Beef Breeds. — These are raised not for milk but for meat. 
They are in some rare cases so highly specialized that the 
mothers, though well fed, fail to give enough milk for their 
calves. None of the beef breeds except the Shorthorn gives 
milk enough to be considered profitable for dairy use. 

Beef animals should have deep, plump, compact bodies, 
well covered with flesh, giving them a blocky appearance; 
the back is broad; the legs are short, straight, and well- 
placed; all quarters are quite thick; the neck is short and 
thick. The whole appearance is that of meat-production. 

The chief distinctive beef breeds are: (1) Shorthorn, 
including Polled Durham, (2) Hereford, (3) Aberdeen Angus, 
and (4) Galloway. 

Shorthorns originated in northeastern England and were 
first introduced into America in 1783. They are now very 
popular cattle. In their general type most of the families 
of the breed conform closely to the beef type (Fig. 162); 
but that branch knoA\Ti as the Bates family of Shorthorns 
are so much inclined toward the dairy type as to be classed 
as general-purpose animals. The name was given them 
17 



258 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

because of their short horns in contrast with the long-horned 
cattle of England. The names Durham, Teeswater, and 
Holderness were local names given them in those localities 
where they were bred. 

The Polled Durhams are a hornless branch or family- of 
the Shorthorn breed; the term "polled" means hornlesSo 
Their hornless character is their only difference from the 
Shorthorns. Cows of the breed weigh 1400 pounds or more. 
The colors vary much more than in any of the other breeds 
of cattle. The prevailing colors are red, white, and roan. 




Fig. 162. — Beef type of shorthorn, white and roan. (An. I.) 

Herefords (Fig. 163) originated in Herefordshire, Eng- 
land, and were first brought to this country by Henry Clay 
in 1817. The breed is old and well estabhshed. In color 
these cattle are red with white faces and some white markings 
along the back, under line and sometimes on the feet and 
tail. The Herefords (pronounced Her-fords) are shorter 
legged, more blocky and a little heavier than the Shorthorns. 
They are well suited to grazing and fatten easily on the 
grassy plains of the West. There they have been extensively 
mixed with the native cattle, the grade Herefords making 
good beef cattle. 

As already mentioned in another chapter, there is now 



CATTLE 



259 



a branch of this breed without horns, the Polled Herefords. 
The hornless character in cattle is always to be desired: 
there is then no necessity for dehorning. Horned cattle 
often do each other, or their keepers, considerable harm, 
in the feed-lot or cattle car. 

Aberdeen Angus cattle originated chiefly in the county 
of Aberdeen and the district of Angus, in the northeastern 
part of Scotland. Local names for them are Polled Angus 
and "Doddies," both names referring to their natural horn- 
less character. They are black, sleek, short-legged, plump 



Fig. 163. 



Fig. 164. 




Fig. 163. — A. Hereford cow, of the heavy beef type; color reil ami wliitc, 

Fig. 164. — Galloway bull, black, hornless with shaggy coat. Beef type. (Kans.) 



cattle, a little smaller than the Shorthorns. Their disposi- 
tion is very quiet and gentle, and they fatten easily, either 
on good blue grass pastures, or in close feeding quarters of 
the corn-belt. The beef is of the very best quality, and the 
fattened animals bring the highest market prices (Fig. 165). 
Galloway cattle are also from Scotland, but from the 
rough districts of the southwestern part of the country. Like 
the Angus cattle, the Galloway is black and hornless and 
has very short legs. But a marked difference in appearance 
is due to the shaggy or curly hair (Fig. 164). The hair is so 
long and curly that the cured skins are used for making rugs, 
robes, and overcoats. These cattle can subsist on the poorest 



260 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



roughage or pasture, but respond rather too slowly to good 
feeding. The cuts of beef of the Galloway carcass are of good 
quality and the animals sell in the Chicago markets at prices 
next to those paid for Angus cattle. Galloway cows are 
very light milkers, but usually supply enough to raise their 
own calves. 




Fk;. Iti.').— a i.iiiiluct of ixuod hrooilins:. Abcni.^c'ii Anciis falf, two years old, 
black, weiglil l<ji:4 puuiid.-. C'liaiiipKin <j{ the babj-ljeef type. (Minn.) 



These cattle are hardy because of the climate from which 
they came. Because of this hardy character they are used 
in the Northwestern States where the winters are severe. 
Galloway cows have been crossed Avith the American buffalo, 
the name Catalo being given to the hybrid offspring. No 
special benefit has yet been derived from this cross. 

Dual=Purpose Breeds. — Cattle of these breeds serve two 
purposes, giving milk and producing meat, but do each 
only fairly well. They may properly be called general-pur- 
pose animals. The type of body is not so lean and angular 



CATTLE 261 

as in the true dairy breeds, nor so blocky and heavy as in 
the beef type. A few of them are heavy and incline a little 
toward the production of beef rather than milk, and others 
are heavier milkers and have more of the dairy conformation; 
for example, the Devons and also the Red Polled breeds 
have both types. Dual-purpose breeds are quite popular 
with general farmers because they are fair milkers and the 
male calves are heavy enough to be sold for veal. Special 
farmers do not use the dual-purpose breeds very much. 
They want the best beef breeds if their special line is beef 
production; or special dairy breeds are kept for the pro- 
duction of milk, cream, and butter. 

The leading dual-purpose breeds in America are: Devon, 
Red Polled, Brown Swiss, the Bates family of Shorthorns, 
and usually the Polled Durhams. 

Devon Cattle. — These originated in England centuries 
ago, and were brought to America in Colonial times. They 
are red with an occasional marking of white on the udder. 
The horns of the cow are long and slender and curved upward. 
As suggested above they are of two types. The plump, trim 
animals are better for beef, although smaller than those of 
the dairy type. Those of the beef type fatten fairly well and 
the meat is of good quality. As milk producers, Devon cows 
rank very well, the milk being nearly as rich as Jersey milk. 
These cattle are usually much smaller than Shorthorns. 

Red Polled.— This (Fig. 166) is another English breed 
of red cattle. They are always polled, are larger than the 
Devons, and often have some white markings on the under 
parts. Solid red is most common. This is probably the best 
of the strictly dual-purpose breeds; the cows when dry will 
fatten easily, and the steers are good beef animals. The 
males will weigh from 1800 to 2200 pounds when mature 
and fat. The cows give a good flow of rich milk, but have 
very large teats and badly shaped udders. The two types 
of cattle found in this breed make it difficult for breeders to 



262 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



always secure the special type of calves which they prefer. 
Dairymen keeping this breed will often be disappointed by 
the frequent recurrence of the beef form. 

Brown Swiss cattle have been bred for centuries in Swit- 
zerland. They were first brought to this country in 1869, 
and are not yet given wide distribution. The color is dark 




Fig. 166. — Red-polled cows, one of the dual-purpose breeds. (An. I.) 




Fio. 167. — l.iwvMi .-wiss cow, of the dual-jiuii, 



mouse to light brown, with more or less of gray along 
the back line and under parts. The udder is usually white. 
The tongue and nose are dark or black, the hoofs black, the 
horns white at the base and dark at the tij). In form these 
cattle are more blocky than tlie Red Polled cattle (Fig. 167). 
The neck and head are large and heavy. Brown Swiss cows 
yield rather large quantities of milk. It is not very rich in 
butter fat. The climate and surrountlings from which these 



CATTLE 



263 



cattle come make them well suited to foraging for themselves, 
but when given good treatment and proper feed they re- 
spond well. 

Dairy Breeds. — There are several special dairy breeds, 
the chief purpose of which is the production of milk. They 
are little suited to beef production (Fig. 168). The form is 
lean and angular, inclined to the wedge shape as viewed from 
the front, side, and top. The full description of the dairy 
type is given in the score card at the end of this chapter. 
(See also Figs. 169-171.) 





i^ 


W'vx 


. '•'^■^ 


r^^^l^^ 


wim^ 


^A 




r. 


r^ 


m 




»iP 


^iLW ^ 


^^ " 


\ 



Fig. 108.- 



■ Products of the dairy. One Jersey calf ai tlic Icfi, 
Ayrshire in the middle, and two Holsteins uu the r: 



:hl. 



x) n ('lUernsey, 



The chief dairy breeds in America are: (1) The Jerseys 
for butter; (2) the Guernseys for good quality of cream; 

(3) the Holsteins, or Holstein-Friesians, for market milk; 

(4) the Ayrshires for cheese, home milk and infant feeding. 
Less common dairy breeds are: The Dutch Belted Cattle of 
Holland, black with wide white belts; and the French Cana- 
dian of the province of Quebec, resembling black Jerseys. 

The Jersey breed originated on a small island by that 
name in the channel group of islands in the English Channel. 
No cattle can be taken to that island except for slaughter 
within twenty-four hours, because of laws made for the i)ur- 
pose of keeping the breed pure. This is the most popular 
of the dairy breeds in America because of the richness of 



264 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

the milk. The cows are famous for the large quantities of 
butter which they produce, many of them yielding from 
fourteen to seventeen pounds of butter in a week. "Loretta 
D," shown in Fig. 169, produced 330 pounds of butter in 
120 days. The Jersey is smaller than any of the other dairy 
breeds used in this country. The general color is squirrel 
gray and fawn color. White markings sometimes appear, 
and considerable grayish shading is seen about the mouth and 
eyes. The nose is usually black or dark colored. The tongue 
and switch may be either black or white. 

Guernseys also have for their native home one of the small 
islands in the English Channel. They w^ere first brought to 
America in 1818. The cattle are much like the Jersej^s in 
their milk and butter yields. The cream is much smoother 
than that of the Jerseys, as the fat particles are not so coarse. 
The cream and butter of the Guernsey are well supplied with 
their owti natural coloring matter. The cows are a little larger 
than Jerseys and more rugged in appearance (Fig. 170). 
The general colors are red-and-white or fawn-and-white. 
The nose should be flesh-colored, never black. The popu- 
larity of the breed is rapidly increasing, and even the grades 
command a high price in the butter-making sections. 

The Holstein-Friesians are usually called merely Hol- 
steins (Hol-stines) . The longer name is derived from the 
names of two provinces in Holland, the native home of the 
breed, where it has been kept pure for many centuries. They 
are much larger than the Jerseys and are black-and-white 
in color (Fig. 171). They are the heaviest milk producers 
of all the cattle. The milk is of fair quality but not rich in 
fat. One of the best records for milk and butter produced 
by a Holstein cow was made by "Colantha 4th's Johanna," 
27,432 pounds of milk and 1164 pounds of butter in one year. 
Among dairymen who sell milk in the markets of the large 
cities this breed is very popular. In cheese-making dis- 
tricts of Wisconsin and elsewhere this breed is much used. 
The fat particles are very fine and hence the cream does 



CATTLE 



265 




Fig. 169. — Jersey cow, "Loretta D." She has won prizes as the champion co-w 
of the world in producing milk and butter. (Animal Industry.; 




Fig. 170. — Pure-bred Guernsey cow, an ideal dairy type. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



266 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




FiQ. 171. — Grade Holstein cow. Notice the udder and milk-vein showlug under 
the body. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 




Fig. 172. — Pure-bred Ayrshire cow. (Experiment Station, N. J.) 



CATTLE 



267 



not rise quickly. This makes it suitable milk to use in 
the ordinary city delivery. 

Ayrshire cattle are natives of the county of Ayr in Scot- 
land. They are smaller than the Holsteins but much larger 




Pig. 173.— Srlni' UI " .\ - aiul young fanners studying a Hereford. 
vAgii cult Ural Education.) 




Fig. 174. — Points of cattle shown on a l;ro\vn .Swiss bull. M, muzzle; D, dewlap; 
B, barrel; L, loin; HP, hip or hook; K, rump; P, pin bone; T, thigh; H, hock; 
S, switch. 

than the Jerseys. In form the Ayrshires are somewhat plump 
and less angular than any of the other dairy breeds (Fig. 172). 
The calves are very good for veal. The milk-producing 
properties of Ayrshires are very much like the Holsteins, 
the yields being large and the milk not so rich in fat as the 
Jerseys. The milk has much total solid matter in it, thus 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



making its food value verj- high. It is valuable for cheese 
making. The colors among Ayrshires are red, brown and 
white; these colors often being mixed. The breed is much 
more common in Quebec, Ontario, New England, and New 
York than in other parts of the country. 

Exercise. — Breeds of Cattle. — The breeds of cattle that 
are most used in any section are the ones that should be 
studied most. The class may be taken to near-bj^ places 
for this purpose, or the animals may be brought to sheds 
or barns nearer by for the purpose of class study (Fig. 173). 

Exercise. — Beef and ' Dairy Types. — It is important 
that students learn well the beef and the dairj' type. The 
animals to be used for this purpose need not be pure in breed. 
Type specimens may usually be found without difficulty and 
should be brought to the school, or the class may go where 
the animals are found. The following score cards should 
be studied and used in the judging exercise. The names of 
the parts are shown in Fig. 174. 

REMEW. 

1. For what two purposes are cattle raised? What three classes 
of breeds are used for these purposes ? 

2. Describe the beef form of animals. 

3. Name four beef breeds and tell what coimtry each is from. 

4. Give the chief colors of each of the four beef breeds. Which 
are hornless ? 

5. Name them in order of their relative size. 

6. Which one is used most on the Western grass plains? \\'hy? 

7. ^^'hich is the most hardy and cold-loving ? 

8. Give some reasons for raising dual-purpose breeds. 

9. Why should special farmers not raise them ? 

10. Tell what you can about the Devon cattle. 

11. Describe the Red Polled breed and tell its advantages. 

12. Compare the Brown Swiss with the other dual-purpo.se breeds. 

13. Describe the dairy tyj^e of animal. 

14. Name four dairy breeds and give the special usp of the product 
from each. 

15. Give the origin of each of the four dairy breeds. 

16. Name them in order from the largest to smallest. 

17. Give the colors of each. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 55, The Dairv Herd; 106, 
Breeds of Dairy Cattle; 152, Scabies of Cattle; 206, Milk Fever and Its 
Treatment; 2S0, A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm; 349, The Dairy 
Industry in the South; 350, The Dehorning of Cattle; 351, The Tuber- 
cuhn Test of Cattle for Tuberculosis; 439, Antlu-ax. 



CATTLE 269 

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD— DAIRY COW. 




General Appearance. 

1. Weight, estimated lbs 

actual lbs 

2. Form, wedge shaped as viewed from front, side 

and top 

3. Quality, hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose, 

medium thickness, secretion yellow; bone 
clean 

4. Constitution, vigorous, not inclined to beefi- 

ness 



5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 



11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 



19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 



24. 



25. 

26. 
27. 



Head and Neck. 
Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large.. 

Eyes, large, bright 

Face, long, lean, quiet expression 

Forehead, broad, slightly dished 

Ears, medium size; yellow inside, fine texture. . 

Neck, fine, medium length; throat clean; light 

dewlap 

Fore and Hind Quarters. 

Withers, lean , thin 

Shoulders, light, oblique 

Hips, far apart; level between hooks 

Rump, long, wide 

Pin-Bones or Thurls, high, wide apart 

Thighs, thin, long 

Legs, straight, short; shank fine 

Tail, long, slim; fine switch 



Body. 

Che.st, deep, low; girth large 

Ribs, broad, well sprung, long, wide apart. 

Back, lean, straight 

Loin, broad, level 

Flank, moderately low 



Milk-Secreting Organs. 

Udder, long, attached high and full behind, 
extending far in front and full; quarters 
even 

Udder, capacious, flexible, with loose pliable 
skin covered with short fine hair 

Teats, large, evenly placed 

Milk Veins, large, tortuous, large milk wells. . 

Total 



15 

15 

4 

6^ 

100 



270 ri{()i)r('n\K farming 

STUDIINT'S SCOkll CARD lUWU- CATTLIZ. 



( !r,Ni;uAi, Ai-rKAUANCK. 

1. W'KKiiir, cstiiuHlcd lbs 

iiccnnliiin to un<' 

2. FoHM, stiaiuhl lop-liric mikI undn-liiK'; (Icfp, 

broiid, low, Hc( stylisli 

3. QiiAi.iTV, I'lnii liiiMdliiip;: li;iii' line; |)liul)l(> Nkin; 

(IciiHC bone; evenly llrslictl 

4. TEMrKltAMKNP, (lllicl 

Hkai) and Nkck. 

5. Miiy.ZM;, luoutli liunc; lips (liin; noslrils hunt'. . 

C. Kykh, liirnc, clciir, pliicid 

7. Kack, short ; (piict cxpicssioti 

H. I<\)im;iikai), broad, full 

\). IOaks, iiKMliuiii size, liiit' (csluic 

10. Nkck, thick, sliorl ; llnoat clean 

l''()Ui;i.U AICI'KHS. 

11. Siioin.DKii Vkin, lull 

12. Siioi'i.DKii, covfrt'd with llcsh, coinpact on top; 

HHUK 

i;{. HiiiSKKT, advanced, breast \vidt> 

II. Dkwi.ai', skin not too loose and drooping;: 

15. lii;(js, strai>j;h(, short; arm lull; shank lin(>, 

smooth 

Ht)i)v. 
1(). (^iiKST, full, d(>ep, wide; ^jirth larps crops full. , 

17. Knis, loiifi;, arelu>d, thickly lleshed 

IS. Mack, broad, str.ainht 

19. JjOiN, thick, broad 

20. Ki.ANK, full, <vcn with undi>r-line 

lIlNlXil'AHTKUS. 

21. Ilii's, smoothly covered; distance apart in pro- 

portion with other parts 

22. HuMT, lonj;, even, wide, tail head smooth, not 

patchy 

2;^ I'lN-UoNKs, not prominent, far apart 

21. 'I'liums, full, il(>ep, wide 

25. liKtiS, straight, short, shank line, smooth 

Total 



Pcrfpcl 
Score. 



() 
10 

.S 



3 

2 

100 



SllKKr 'ill 



CUAV'VKM. XXTV. 
SHIZIIP. 

SiiioKi' liMA'c lw(» iiKiiii uses, I he product itm of luuMoii 
and I he piodiidioii of wool. In juiciciil limes slicphccds 
also k('p(. lIuMu for lliiMi' milk. l''or (licsc two present pur- 
poses there are now a, mimher of lireeds of sheep. 

Types.— 'I'hose which |)roduce the most and hest mutton 
ar(» l)l(K'ky in form and coires|)ond closely in outline lo the 
beef type in (^dlle. Sheep that natiu-ally have a l(>an, an>j;u- 
lar frame, like a <i;ood dairy tyi><' <'f cow, are of the typi* best 
suited lor wool production. 

lireeds Classified. Many of the conunon breeds of 
sheep are used both for wool and mutton. They are, there- 
fore, usually fi;rouped accordinj; to the lenj^lh or lineness of 
wool, as: /////; or short wooled; nicdiifni wooled; and codrsc 
or lon^" wooled. 'The me<liuin and the coarse wooled sheep 
compi'ise the nuitton breeds. 

Coarse Wooled lireeds. The coarse or lon^-wooled 
sheep include the beie(>ster (Les-ter), Lincoln, and ('otswohb 
They all orij^inatcd in i'ln^land. 

The ('olstri)l(ls ( l*'i^'. ITf)) are nuich more common in 
America than the others of the coarse wooled j!;roup. They 
are larp;er than most, other sheep, the males attaining;- a 
weight of 250 pounds or more. The meat, from llu' lambs 
is of fair (piality. They have no horns; the face is always 
white. The locks of crimjjy wool are often twelve inches in 
lon{i;1h. The fleece or aimual slwarinj; from a (olswold will 
average ten pounds of rather coarse wool with lonn' staple 
or fiber. 

77/c fjcicesters are of nnich the same ty|)e as the ( 'olswold; 
but the head is without wool, the lieece is nol in cinly locks, 



onq 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



and the frame is not so large. They are also hornless. 

The Lincolns exceed the Cotswolds in size, the males 
sometimes weighing 350 or 400 pounds (Fig. 176). They are 
hornless, have white faces with a little wool on the head. 
The fleece of the body hangs in curly locks, and the staple 
is longer than in any other breed; they shear about fifteen 
pounds to a fleece. 

Medium Wooled Sheep. — This group is much more 
popular than either of the others because of their general- 
purpose character, and their lambs mature sooner than those 



Fia. 175. 



Fia. 176, 




-uold ewe, one of the longer or coarse-woole>l breeds. 
-Lincoln ewe, a coarse-wooled type. 



of the larger breeds. The most common breeds of this type 
in America would be named in about the following order: 
Shropshire, Southdown, Hampshire, Oxford, Cheviot, and 
Dorset. These are all natives of England, and are hornless 
except the last or occasionally the Cheviot males. They 
have brown or black faces, ears, and legs, except the Dorsets 
and Cheviots, which have white markings. All of these breeds 
have wool on the faces except the Cheviots, which are wooled 
only to the ears. Shropshires, SouthdowTis. and Cheviots 
increase in numbers rapidly, as twin lambs are very common. 
The Southdowns (Fig. 177) are the smallest breed named 
in this group. The Shropshires, Cheviots, and Dorsets come 



SHEEP 



273 



next in size and weight. The Hampshires have larger frames 
and are a little heavier, but the Oxfords stand at the head 
of the list in size and weight (Fig. 178). 

FiQ. 177. Fig. 178. 




Fii,. 177. — Chaiiipiou riouthdown ewe, one of the most popular of the medium 
wooled breeds. 

Fig. 178. — Oxford ram. These have the longest wool of the medium breeds. 




% 



'-^- 




c 



Fig. 179. — Prize-winning Shropshire wetner one year old. 
(Experiment Station, Wis.) 

The fleeces of the Shropshire (Fig. 179), Oxford, and Dor- 
set are all of good weight and the wool of excellent quality. 
These three and the Cheviots produce very good mutton, 
but the Southdown meat is popularly considered the best. 
18 



274 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Cheviot sheep are the best grazers, having been well 
trained to this in their native land— the Cheviot hills, be- 
tween England and Scotland. 




Fig. 180. — Dorset sheep makinj; ::.vi.;ui; u;. p.i, . un , a i ::;icil breed of the medium 
wool type. (.Froui CorntU CuauliyttKin.) 




Fig. 181. — Dorset ewes and their winter lambs. This is a good breed for the 
production of winter or "hot-hou.-^e ' lambs. 



The Dorset breed (Figs. 180, 181) is much used for the 
production of early or winter lambs for the city markets. 
The "hot-house" lamb industry, as this is called, is a rather 
new and special line of the sheep industry in America. 

Fine Wooled Sheep. — This is the Merino group. Their 
wool is very fine in quality and the fleeces much heavier 



SHEEP 



275 



than in the other breeds. There is an oil secreted by the 
skin which makes the wool very oily; this is called the yolk. 
The oil catches much dust, which always gives the sheep a 
dirty appearance. The sheep are quite small in size and lack 
the plump form found in the mutton breeds. The mutton 
is not of good quahty, and none but the largest are used for 
this purpose. 

There are three breeds of Merinos found in America. 
They are all descendants of the original Spanish blood. These 





Fig 1S2. 






Fig. 1S3. 






p ^ 






? 


U») 1 


M 


1 

r2 


'■"J 


i^r^w 


r 


-I 


^ 


P 


M 


■«i^--~, . 


- „, .,1*^. 






.... . ^, 







Fig. 182. — American Merino ram, "Perfection." Note the wrinkles all over him 
except on the back. 

Fig. 183. — Rambouillet or French Merino of the fine wooled tjTie. 



are (1) American Merino; (2) Rambouillet (Ram-boo-ya') 
or French Merino; (3) Delaine Merino. The males have 
spiral horns and the females are without horns. 

In all of these the fine wool covers the body and legs down 
to the feet; but the nose and ears are usually free from wool. 
The American Merino (Fig. 182) is the smallest and has deep 
wrinkles or folds all over the body except on the back. The 
Delaine is less ^^Tinkled and is somewhat larger. The Ram- 
bouillet (Fig. 183) is much the largest of the group, with 
no folds at all except sometimes on the neck and breast. 

The Merinos are all hardy and good grazers. Their 
grades are used for grazing in large flocks on the Western 
plains. 



276 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Care of Sheep. — Sheep naturally live in mountainous 
and hilly regions, where thej^ get their living by feeding 
on grasses and native plants of all kinds. There is now 
greater profit from the raising of sheep in those sections 
where the country is too rough for the raising of cultivated 
crops. Sheep make good use of the land that would other- 
wise be wasted. This is true to a greater degree with sheep 
and Angora goats than with any other domestic animals. 
Sheep are naturally kept in flocks, the Merinos in verj' large 
flocks and the mutton breeds in smaller numbers. The 
handling of very large numbers of any breed in a single 
flock requires considerable experience. It is better to begin 
with small flocks. 

Winter quarters for sheep should not be very Avarm. 
The animals have their own coats and will suff"er if housed 
too closely. It is highly important that they be kept per- 
fectly dry in every respect. Protected shelter from rain 
and snow to keep the coats dry, and good drainage in the 
sheds and lots to keep the feet drj-, are essential to success. 

During the winter the flocks should be divided so that 
all will have equal opportunity at the feed trough and racks. 
Not over twenty-five or fifty in a single flock should be the 
rule. When the numbers are large they may be sorted into 
such groups as: first, wether lambs; second, ewe lambs; 
third, shearling ewes; and fourth, breeding ewes. 

The winter feed for sheep should include plent>' of rough- 
age, such as clover hay, cut corn fodder, and oat straw. They 
are very fond of root crops, and plenty of sugar beets, 
mangles, or turnips should be provided. 

Great care and constant attention are required l)y the 
shepherd when lambing time comes. Xew-born lambs must 
not become chilled. Some ewes fail to oa\ti their lambs 
and must be held for the young to draw the milk. These 
and many other points require the immediate attention of 
a good shepherd. 



SHEEP 



277 



Exercise. — Samples of Wool. — Typical samples of wool 
may be brought by pupils or obtained from noted breeders 
through the mail. These should be fastened with thread 
to cards and labelled with the name of the breed. Let 
students point out the difference in wool while studying 
the breeds of sheep. 




Fig. 184. — A lesson in judging sheep. (U. S. OflBce of Experiment Stations.) 



Exercise. — Breeds of Sheep. — Pupils should be given 
an opportunity to become familiar with all the breeds or 
the types of sheep kept in the section where the school is 
located. Typical specimens may be brought to the school; 
or the students may go where the sheep are kept (Fig. 184). 
Score cards for fine wooled sheep and for mutton sheep may 
be used in judging such sheep. Write to the Agricultural 
College of your State for such score cards. (See address 
in the Appendix.) 



278 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

REVIEW 

1 . What are the two main uses for sheep ? 

2. What are the three classes of sheep ? Which two of these are 
used for mutton ? 

3. Describe the Cotswolds. 

4. Compare the Leicesters and Lincolns with these in every way 
that you can. 

5. Name five breeds of the medium wooled sheep. 

6. Give the chief differences between these five breeds. 

7. Which breed is used for the winter himb industry ? 

8. Describe the Merino breeds and tell their differences. 

9. For what kinds of places are .sheep best suited ? 

10. Describe best winter quarters for sheep. 

1 1 . Why should the flock be separated into small numbers in winter ? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 49, Sheep Feeding; 96, Raising 
Sheep for Mutton; 119, A Flock of Mutton Sheep, pp. 23-24; 330, Deer 
Farming in the United States; 457, Early Spring Lambs, p. 20. 



CHAPTER XXV. 
SWINE. 



Wild hogs' of different kinds are found in Europe, Asia, 
and some parts of North and South America. It is from the 
wild forms of the Old World that the improved breeds of 
swine have been developed. The changes wrought have 
been truly wonderful. The time required for the pig to 
mature has been reduced more than one-half. The tendency 
to become very fat, which is so well marked in some breeds, 
is not found in wild hogs. Domestic pigs are usually slow 
and quiet, not wild and ferocious. 

To obtain the best results in swine management, it is 
necessary to keep pure bred or high grade swine. They 
fatten easier, mature at an earlier age, and are larger than 
the scrubs. In the United States more swine are raised than 
any other class of live stock except cattle. Their value to 
the farmers is estimated at nearly one-half billion dollars. 

Types of S\>ine. — There are a number of breeds of swine, 
but only a few have become very pojnilar in America. They 



SWINE 



279 



are classified as: first, lard or fat type; and second, the hacon 
or lean type. The form of the body in the fat type is com- 
pact, deep, broad, and low, with short back and deep, fat 
sides; the neck is short and thick; head small; hams and 
shoulders large. The bacon type has long legs, long neck, 
coarse head, narrow back, long and deep sides, in many 
respects the very opposite of the fat type. Bacon swine are 
kept for their fine lean cuts of bacon. The demand for this 
type is not so great in America as in Europe. 




Fig. 185. — The lard t>-pe, a Poland China sow. Color, black with white markings. 

Breeds of the Fat Type. — The most popular breeds of 
swine in America, of the fat type, are Poland China, Berkshire, 
Chester White, and Duroc-Jersey. Others of less prominence 
are Cheshire, Victoria, Small Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk. 

America has produced very few new breeds of horses, 
cattle or sheep, but a number of good breeds of swine have 
been developed here. Swine from Europe are not so well 
suited to the use of American field corn as to the grains of 
their own country. Manj' of the English breeds are of the 
bacon type and will not thrive on corn. The Berkshire is the 
only very popular English breed in this country. The Poland 
China originated in Ohio, the Chester White in Chester 
County, Pennsylvania, and the Duroc-Jersey in New Jersey. 



280 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

The Poland China (Fig. 185) and the Berkshire are both 
black, with some white markings on the face, legs or other 
parts. The Chester White and the strain called Ohio Im- 
proved Chester (O. I. C.) are white in color. The Duroc- 
Jersey is red or some modification of that color. These are 
all large in size and the pigs mature early. The Berkshire 
has erect ears and a dished face; in the others the ears are 
drooping. The Duroc-Jersey is liked throughout the country 
because of the large litters of pigs. The Poland China is 
criticised because of the small number of pigs in a litter. 




Fig. 186. — A Tamworth sow, red, representing the bacon type. 

The white swine are not much used in the South and South- 
west because of the greater danger of skin diseases in hot, 
sunny climates. 

Breeds of the Bacon Type. — The Large Yorkshire (Fig. 
187), Tamworth (Fig. 186), and Hampshire are the leading 
breeds of the bacon type of swine. The last mentioned 
originated in Kentucky and the others in England. The 
Large Yorkshire is white, the Tamworth red, and tlie Hamp- 
shire black with a wide white belt. 

Pig Management. — AVhen swine are kept in large numbers 
they should be provided with an al)inulance of good pasture. 
Clovers and other legumes should be grown for this purpose. 



SWINE 281 

The cost of producing a pound of live weight is much less 
for growing pigs than for those which have reached maturity. 
For this reason the farmer finds it more profitable to sell his 
market pigs before they are a year old. Those to be sold as 
fat hogs should not be fed through two winters. 

The life of a spring pig may be conveniently considered 
as divided into four feeding periods of six or eight weeks 
each: (1) The milk period, during which time a large part of 
his growth is from his mother's milk, but some sloppy feed 
may be added; (2) the ivet rnash period, when the feed is 
mostly given in the wet form and plenty of skim milk is 




Fig. 187. — Students judging large Yorkshire swine. The bacon type. 
(,U. S. Office of Experiment Stations). 

supplied to him. The ground feeds, such as middlings, 
gluten, and other feeds rich in protein, are used in the wet 
mash; and some sliced roots and clover pasture may be 
allowed; (3) the pasture period, when the clovers and 
grasses produce the greatest growth. A little wet mash is 
fed at the first part of this period and a little dry grain 
toward the last; (4) the corn period, or fattening stage. It 
is well to use some sliced roots in addition to the corn, but 
it is not best to give a wide range on pasture at this time. 
If this four-period plan of feeding is followed for early 
spring pigs they can be sold without carrying them over 
winter. 



28^2 PRODUCTIVE FARIMING 

Pigs require plenty of good water, and also plenty of 
mineral matter. Besides the mineral matter in the feeds 
they should be supplied with charcoal, wood ashes, common 
salt, sulfur, saltpeter, and air slaked lime. These may 
be kept under cover where they have constant access 
to thorn. 

Hog Cholera. — Swine production is much hampered by 
the disease known as cholera. This is very contagious, and 
is most common in the corn belt. It is spread from place to 
place in several ways, as by running streams, by buzzards, 
crows, dogs and other animals, and on the shoes of men. 
Care must be taken to prevent the disease from spreading 




Fig. 188. — A form .1 1 1 1 moved to a clean 

plat-L' tu pic\ eiil ^li:^t■ase. 

in any way (Fig. 188). A special form of vaccination to 
prevent hog cholera is now being used by some large growers. 
Farmers have come into the practice of selling pigs before 
they are very old. The prevalence of this disease has been 
one of the causes of this. 

Exercise. — Feed and Age of Pigs. — Let students tell 
of the methods of feeding swine which they have learned 
from older people. Let them also tell at what ages market 
pigs are usually sold. 

Exercise. — Breeds of Swine. — A visit should be made 
with the class to places where good tj'pes of fat or bacon 
pigs are kept. If there are pure breds or high grades in the 
vicinity they should be used to show breed characteristics. 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 283 

Exercise. — Swine Judging. — Get score cards for fat and 
for bacon types of swine from your State Agricultural College 
and have one or two lessons in judging. This will clearly 
show the differences between the two types. 

REVIEW 

1. Tell what you can of the source of domestic swine. 

2. Describe and contrast the two types of swine. 

3. Name the four most common breeds of the fat type and give 
their origin. 

4. Give the colors and other distinctive characteristics of these 
four breeds. 

5. Name three breeds of the bacon type and give their origin and 
color. 

6. Why should farmers sell young market swine rather than older 
ones? 

7. Tell of the importance of good pastures for swine. 

8. Give the four feeding periods of a pig's life, and the chief feed 
for each. 

9. Mention some forms of mineral matter for pigs. 
10. Tell how hog cholera disease is spread. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 100, Hog Raising in the 
South; US, Profitable Crops for Pigs, i)p. 27-29; 1S3, Meat on the 
Farm: Butchering, Curing and Keeping; 222, Market Classes and 
Grades of Swine, j)p. 24-32; 272, A Successful Hog and Seed Corn Farm; 
296, Grinding Corn for Hogs, p. 2.5; 379, Hog Cholera. Bulletins on 
Hog Cots: 273, pp. 1 1-14 ; 296, pp. 27-29 ; 334, pp. 31-32. Bulletins partly 
on Swine Feeding, 22, 97, 133, 144, 169, 210, 251, 296, 305, 315, 329. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 
POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 

The term Poultry commonly includes chickens, ducks, 
geese, and turkeys; but may also refer to guineas, pigeons, 
pheasants and peafowls. The keeping of poultry by farmers 
is usually only incidental to other lines of farming. But in 
some sections, particularly near large cities, poultry raising 
is extensively carried on as a special line of farming. 

The value of poultry and eggs produced annually on 
American farms is about two-thirds of a billion dollars. In 



^284 PRODUCTIVE FAR:\IING 

their values they exceed all other live stock except horses 
and cattle. Poultry products equal the value of the combined 
mine products of gold, silver, iron, and coal. When consider- 
ing the value of poultry on the farm the farmer should remem- 
ber the great food value of the eggs and meat, the large num- 
ber of injurious insects destroyed, and the ease with which 
they may be fed, often living almost entirely on products 
that would otherwise be wasted. 

The production of improved breeds of poultry has 
received much attention by poultrymen. This is particularly 




Fig. 189. — Single-comb white Leghorn hen, one of the be^t uf the egg-laying breeds. 

true of chickens. There are many divisions of this specialty, 
such as the production of eggs in winter, raising early broilers, 
the raising of fancy birds for shows, the raising of ducks, 
geese or turkeys. 

Varieties of Chickens. — There are more than one hundred 
varieties of chickens. These may be grouped according to 
their purposes into four classes: (1) Egg breeds, (2) meat 
breeds, (3) general-purpose breeds, and (4) ornamental l^reeds. 

Egg Breeds. — These are of light weight. They mature 
and begin laying very young. They include all the Leghorns 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 285 

(Fig. 189), Minorcas (Fig. 190), and Spanish, of the Medi- 
terranean class, and also the less common Red Caps of the 
English class. The eggs of these egg breeds are usually 
white. 




Fig. 190. — Black Mlnorea pair, an egg-laying breed producing the largest white 

eggs. 

Exercise. — Egg Records. — The records from small or 
large flocks of chickens near by may be collected. The 
pupils may find a wide difference among them. Have the 



286 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



causes of the difference explained by pupils if the conditions 
can be learned. Save the records to use in arithmetic class. 
Meat Breeds. — The very heavy breeds of the Asiatic 
class are very slow-maturing fowls. The Cochins, Brahmas 
(Fig. 191), and Langshans belong to this group. They all 
have feathers on the shank, or lower part of the leg. The 
Dorkings and Indian Games are also called meat breeds. 
The heavy meat breeds are not noted for their egg-laying, 
but the meat is excellent. They are good sitters, but clumsy 
as mothers. 



Fia. 191. 



Fig. 192. 




Fig. 191. — T^iglit Brahma lien, one of tlie niofit popular of heavy fowls. 

Fig. 192. — Barred Plymouth Kock hen, the most popular of the general-purpose tyF>e. 



Qeneral=Purpose Breeds.^ All varieties of the American 
class belong here. This includes the Plj^mouth Rocks (Figs. 
192 and 193), Wyandottes (Fig. 194), Javas, Dominiques, 
Rhode Island Reds, and Buckeyes. The Orpingtons from 
England and the Houdons from France are also included in 
this group. General-purpose breeds are medium in weight 
and they vary a gi-eat deal as to their egg and meat-produc- 
ing qualities. They mature much younger than the meat 
breeds, but not so early as the egg breeds. They are good 
sitters and mothers. 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 287 

Ornamental Breeds. — These are used for show purposes, 
and include the Bantams, Games (except Indian Games), 
Polish, Frizzles, Silkies, and other less common classes. The 
Houdons are sometimes considered as ornamentals because 
of their large crests. All breeds of poultry, regardless of 
class, are bred quite commonly for show purposes. 

What Variety to Keep. — It is very important to keep 
varieties best suited to the purposes desired. For large 
numbers of eggs poultrymen use the egg breeds, and use 
them while young. The first year is their best egg-laying 



Fig 193. 



Fig. 194. 




Fig. 1!j: ' Plymoutli Rock hen, a general -purpose breed. 

Fig. 1!)4. — I'lizL-winning white Wyandotte hen. 



year. For table use, keep the meat breeds. Within the 
varieties there are certain strains or families which are better 
than others because they have been selected with reference 
to a special purpose. 

Exercise. — Study of Varieties. — Let the pupils who 
have seen pure-bred chickens describe them to the class. 
If some are now keeping any of the pure breeds, have them 
weigh some of them and report weights to the class. Com- 
pare these with the standard weights given in the United 
States Farmers' Bulletin 5L 



288 



PRODUCTIVE FAR^HNG 



Housing. — Chickens should have special places made for 
them to roost and to lay eggs. It is very bad practice to 
allow them to use buildings and places intended for other 
purposes. 




Fig. 195.— a,- il,,,;, 



J >liii'ifs li'mli fc irlayiiiKheiis 
liUer an- on llie grouiul. 



The iie.Tts and scraf chingf 



Fig. 190. 



FiQ. 197. 




Fig. 196. — Movable chick brooder house heated by gasoline. 
Fig. 197. — Brooder house for raising incubator chicks. The Houdon chicks 
have been raised in tliis house. 



The poultry house may be very simple and inexpensive 
(Figs. 195, 196, 197). It should be dry and comfortable in 
winter, free from drafts of air, but with plenty of fresh air 
and direct sunshine. Many poultry raisers now use light- 
weight muslin stretched on wood frames in the south side 
of their poultrj^ houses. The frames are hinged in place at 
the top and are kept open every day except when the weather 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 289 

is stormy. In many of these houses no glass windows are 
used. In others the south side is part glass and part muslin. 
The curtains prevent any strong drafts of air at night and 
in stormy weather. In houses with too little ventilation 
the fowls will suffer more from extremely cold weather than 
in those with muslin curtains. 

Artificial heat in a poultry house is not advisable, except 
for brooder chicks. Winter feathers are so warm that arti- 
ficial heat often leads to some form of sickness. The better 
plan is to build the houses with low ceilings over the roosts 
so that the chickens will sleep warm because of their own 
heat (Figs. 198 and 199). Extra curtains may be placed in 
front of the roosts for use on cold nights. The sides and roof 
of the house should be well built to keep out drafts of air and 
rain. Chickens thrive in houses that are cool and dr}" better 
than in those which are damp and warm. 

Location of Poultry House. — This is very important. 
Select a high spot to put the chicken house on. Natural 
drainage away from the building will help in keeping the 
ground dry and free from disease. Sandy or gravelly soil is 
better than clay for the same reason. A place gently sloping 
to the south is best. Where natural slopes are not found the 
surface drainage may he provided by grading the ground 
with the use of horses and scrapers. This should be done 
before the house is built. 

Wind Breaks should be provided on the north and west 
sides. They are sometimes composed of evergreens or other 
trees planted very near together. Tight board fences may 
be built. Where the house is placed on the south side of 
larger farm buildings the worst winds are kept away. 

Inside the House. — If the house faces the south, with the 
muslin windows on that side, then the roosts should be along 
the north side of the room. Place all the roosts on a level 
with each other, or nearly so. Have a board platform built 
six inches below the roosts to keep the floor clean and make 
19 



'200 



PllODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fio. 198. — Open-front oolnny liouse for pmiltry, rt^aily for a nxuslin sorpon in 
lanro window. 'riiron»;li tlio window inav lu- soon ilio roosts, plall'onn. and nosts. 
Hons ontor nosts frolu the dark side at, back. The liingetl boan.1 allows the ea«iy 
removal of eggs. 











□ 


/' 




-v, ^ 


^^.nv^/Art ^0A»^ 


i 






1 km 



P'ui. UHI. — Sootional view of slioil-roof poviltr.v hovi.se, shown in Fig. li>S, having 
nuisliu eurtiun in front instead of glas«. 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT ,'1)1 

more room for litter and for the fowls to scratcli. The nosts 
may also bo placotl uiulor this platform if tlu> room is small. 

The roosts, nests, and platform should bo so made as to 
bo easily oloauod. Those as well as the inside* walls sliould bo 
covered with lime white-wash, oontaining some disinfectant, 
renewed from time to time. 

Dust Boxes. — C^hiekons love to wallow in dust. This 
helps to keep tht>m free from mites and lice, l^ust boxes 
should be providiMl, parlicuhuiy in winlcM- (inu>. TIh>s(> may 
bo filled with a sifttnl mixture of aslu's and dry soil. Place 
the boxes in suimy placi^s. 

Feed Troughs and Hoppers. — Thes(> .should bo used only 
for the jj;rounil f(>eds, wlu^thor wet or dry. For wet mash 
the troujj;hs are best; but for dry, s>;round foods, ealhnl dnj 
inosh, the solf-foiMJini;' hoppt^rs are us(>d. Make the U'vd 
boxes in suoh a way as to prev»Mit the fowls from j>;(>ltin,i; 
into the food to soratoh. Tlu* whole j»;rain should be fed 
in de(>i) li(t(>r. This will induce (he chickens to do nior(» 
scratchinj;', and keej) tluMu stronji; and healthy. 

Sclj'-fccdituj ho])pers are nuido so as to allow (he fowls 
to eat near the bottom. As fast as the food is usi^l up more of 
it runs down from above. Those are eall(>d dry mash hop|)ers 
(Fig. 2t)()). 

Grit Boxes. — Boxes for grit, charcoal, and o>s({>r shell 
may be fastened to the walls above the litt(>r, for use at all 
times. 

Drinking Fowdains. — These should be ])laced a foot 
above the floor for grown ohickiMis. "^riiis helps to keep the 
water clean. A sinii)le water fountain can \)c made thus: 
A gallon ])ail or can or jar without a toj) is used (Fig. 201). 
]\Iake a nail hole on one sid(> one-half inch from the top. 
Fill with clean water. Place over it a flat pan sonu^what 
larger than the mouth of the vessel used. Then suddenly 
invert the fountain, and j)lace it on a low box in the poultry 
room. As the water is used out of the pan more will How 



292 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



down until it is gone. Care should be taken to wash it well 
each day, and to keep it well supplied with clean water. 
All chickens require much water to drink. 

Feeding Systems. — Much discussion has been carried 
on by poultry raisers as to the feeding systems to be followed. 
Some are most successful with the wet-mash system of feed- 




FiG. 200. — Dry-mash hopper. Tlie wire screen over the lower opening prevents 
the waste of feed. 



ing fowls. This system consists in feeding wet ground feed 
once or twice a day and dry grains at other times. 

Recently a number of poultrymen have adopted a plan 
known as the dry-mash sj'stem of feeding. A dry mash is 
made by mixing a number of finely ground feeds together. 
This is kept in a self-feeding hopper or feeding fountain at all 
times. Besides this dry mash one or two feeds of mixed whole 
grains are given in the deep litter on the floor. The heat- 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 



293 



producing feed, as whole corn, is fed in the evening, during 
cold weather. 

Exercise. — Feeding Dry Mash. — If possible, to make a 
trial in winter, let one or more persons near by try the dry 
mash, fed b}^ the hopper method. They may report results 
to the teacher or to the school. 

Feeding for Winter Eggs. — The feed for egg production, 
as well as for forcing the growth of 3'oung broilers, should 
be very rich in protein. Below are given several different 
rations in use on egg farms: 




Fig. 201. — A simple drinking fountain for poultry, easily 
cleaned each time before filling. 

Dry Mash No. 1 . — 100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds 
wheat middlings, 100 pounds alfalfa meal, 75 pounds good 
beef meal. 

This is given as a dry mash. Whole wheat or a mixture 
of wheat and oats is thrown in the litter every morning; 
and whole corn or cracked corn in the evening, just before 
roosting time. Shell, grit, and charcoal are kept in separate 
boxes. 

Dry Mash No. 2. — 100 pounds cornmeal, 100 pounds beef 
meal, 100 pounds alfalfa meal, 5 pounds oyster shell, 3 pounds 
grit, 3 pounds charcoal. 

This mash is fed in the open hoppers and kept supplied 



294 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

constantly. Two grain feeds are given in the litter each day 
to get the fowls to exercise. This is a mixture of one part 
oats, two parts cracked corn, and three parts wheat. 

Wet mashes are very commonly fed to chickens of all ages. 
They are very effective as forcing feeds, but the careless use 
of them tends to produce disease of various forms. The two 
mixtures given here may be slightly changed to suit different 
conditions. 

Wet Mash No. 1. — One hundred pounds each of ground 
oats, ground corn, ground barley, and bran. 

Wet Mash No. 2. — Equal parts by weight of ground 
corn, bran, ground oats, and cut clover or cut alfalfa. 

These are each supplemented with grain, fed in the litter; 
and grit, shell, and charcoal in boxes. Meat scraps are 
usually given separate from the wet mash. 

Exercise. — Poultry Rations. — All the pupils who have 
poultry at home should tell of the daily system of feeding 
and watering, and of the rations fed. IVIen or women who 
are successful poultry raisers may be invited to tell the school 
their plans of feeding and other i)ractical points. 

Succulent Feed. — Chickens should have plenty of suc- 
culent green feed, if possible. The best forms of this in 
winter are cabbage, turnips, and beets; as substitutes clover 
and alfalfa hay may be fed wet or dry, either whole or cut 
fine. Growing rye or other winter crops furnish green feed 
in late fall and early spring. Oats may be sprouted in flat 
boxes in a warm room and fed to the fowls daily (Fig. 
202). 

Care of Poultry. — Poultry raising is an art most easily 
acquired by practice combined with a study of the principles 
underlying it. 

The health of the fowls must be guarded. They must be 
kept free from vermin. Brush crude oil (petroleum) on the 
roosts once a week through the warm weather. Spray this 
oil on the walls and in the nest boxes. The conditions and 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 295 

effects of moulting must be understood. Hatching with hens 
and with machines and the raising of young chicks must be 
learned by practice. Many helpful suggestions along these 
lines are given in United States Farmers' Bulletin 287. 

Exercise. — Running an Incubator. — (Fig. 203). — In the 
spring time, when the school-room does not get too cool at 
night, run an incubator in the school-room. One may be 
borrowed for the purpose, or the pupils will earn money 
enough to buy one and supply the eggs and kerosene. Follow 
directions carefully. Appoint certain pupils to attend the 





Fig. 202.— Sprouted oats as winter green feed for hens. The oats are wet and put 
in a shallow tray in a warm room for about ten days. (Maine.) 

incubator each day. Make a record form on large paper 
or cardboard on the wall. Let this show each morning and 
evening: (1) the temperature, (2) whether regulator is open 
or shut, (3) condition of lamp, (4) who filled and trimmed 
the lamp, (5) who turned the eggs. The chicks hatched may 
be cared for at school for two weeks or taken to one of the 
homes when one day old (Fig. 204) . United States Farmers' 
Bulletin 236 will be helpful. Either of the two types of 
outdoor brooders shown in Figs. 196 and 197 can be made 
by boys at home. 

Exercise. — Color of Yolk. — When the grain fed to hens 
is chiefly oats, the yolks are much lighter colored than when 



296 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



they are fed corn, particularly yellow corn. Let this dif- 
ference in color of yolk be shown at school by having eggs 
brought from flocks fed in these ways. 

Exercise. — Packing Eggs. — Let pupils tell of the different 
ways they have seen eggs packed for market. Some can tell 
of the ways they come from stores. Should the eggs be 
washed, if dirty, before marketing ? Should they l)e sorted 
by size as apples usually are ? Do you know of any markets 




I'lc. 203. — Practiral operation of incubators in a school-room. 
(.Agricultural Jvlucation.) 

where the prices are higher for white-shelled eggs, or higher 
for brown-shelled eggs ? (See the method of packing shown 
in Fig. 205.) 

Exercise. — Weight of Eggs. — Weigh a dozen large eggs 
and get the average weight in ounces. Weigh a dozen small 
eggs and get the average weight. How many of the large 
eggs does it require to weigh a pound, and how many small 
ones ? Eggs are usually sold by the dozen, but in some 
places by the pound. Which way is fairer ? 



POULTRY MANAGEMENT 



29' 



Exercise. — Drinking Fountain. — Have some one make 
a drinking fountain like the one described and figured, and 
show how it works (Fig. 201). 




Fig. 204. — A hundred white Leghorn chicks from an incubator. (Cornell.) 

Exercise. — Testing Eggs. — Let some form of tester be 
used in testing eggs brought from homes or from a store. 
Eggs are usually candled in some stores to detect any not 




Fig. 20.5. — A good way to prepare eggs for market. Each dozen is uniform 
in size and color and packed in the dozen-size cartons of pasteboard. The crate 
is painted and labelled with the owner's name. (H. R. Lewis.) 



suitable for human food. This is done thus: Put a candle 
or stronger light in a dark box; have an oval hole a little 
smaller than an egg in one side, even with the light; let that 
part of the room where the testing is to be done be darkened 
somewhat. Hold an egg over the hole and look for any 



298 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

dark or clouded parts in the contents. Other forms of egg 
testers are in use. The eggs in an incubator are usually 
tested the fifth or sixth day to see if a live, growing germ is 
present. 

Exercise. — Preserving Eggs. — Let some of the pupils 
preserve a few do?en fresh eggs. April or IVTay is a good 
time to preserve them for winter use. The eggs may be 
kept at home and the report of the trial made to the class 
a few months later. Directions: Scald out a stone jar vnth 
boiling water. Prepare a solution, using water that has been 
first boiled and then cooled to ordinary temperature. To 
each seven quarts of water add one pint of water-glass, pur- 
chased at a drug store. Select clean (not washed) fresh eggs, 
and place them in the jar. Pour the liquid over the eggs, 
covering them more than an inch above the top ones. Keep 
them in a dark, cool, dry cellar. 

Problems. — A flock containing 28 pullets laid 1600 eggs 
in January, February and March — 

1. What was the average number of eggs from each? 

2. What was the average number of eggs from the flock 
for each of the 90 days? 

3. If 400 of the eggs were laid in January and sold at an 
average price of 36 cents a dozen, what was the income for 
January? 

4. If they laid 500 eggs in Fel^ruary worth 30 cents a 
dozen, what was the income for the month? 

5. They laid 700 eggs in March which were sold at 18 
cents a dozen. Wliat was the amount of the month's sales? 

6. Find the total income from the 28 pullets for the three 
months. 

7. Find the average income from each hen for the three 
months. 



BEE-KEEPING 299 



REVIEW 

1. Tell what you can of the importance of the poultry industry 
in this country. 

2. Give a list of the special egg-laying breeds of chickens. How 
many colors of these have you heard of ? 

3. Give a list of the special meat breeds. 

4. What is meant by general-purpose breeds? For what are they 
used ? Name them. 

5. Describe a good location for a poultry house. 

6. Why should chickens have a house of their own ? 

7. Tell of the plan for musUn windows for poultry houses. Why 
are they used ? 

8. Mention some of the requirements of a good poultry house. 

9. Why not use artificial heat in poultry houses ? 

10. Tell of some good wind-breaks for the poultry house. 

1 1 . Describe, or draw on paper, the inside arrangement of the poultry 
house. 

12. Why are dust baths necessary for hens? 

13. Describe a good drinking fountain for chickens. 

14. What do poultry raisers mean by wet mash and dry mash ? 

15. Why should some grain be thrown into the litter every day ? 

16. Describe a daily ration for laying hens. (1) Wet system. (2) 
Dry system. 

17. What feeds will supply succulence in winter? 

18. Tell how to destroy vermin on roosts and in nests. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 51, Standard Vari- 
eties of Chickens; 64, Ducks and Geese; 177, Squab Raising; 182, 
Poultry as Food; 200, Turkeys; 234, The Guinea Fowl; 236, Incubation 
and Incubators; 287, Poultry Management; 355, A Successful Poultry 
and Dairy Farm; 357, Methods of Poultry Management at the Maine 
Agricultural E.xperiment Station; 390, Pheasant Raising in the United 
States; 452, Capons and Caponizing. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
BEE=KEEP1NQ. 



When the subject of pollination of fruit trees was dis- 
cussed two purposes of bee-keeping were mentioned. The 
production of honey and the pollination of fruit blossoms are 
both sources of profit on the farm. A fairly good average 
yield from a colony of bees each season is forty pounds of 
extracted honey or twenty-five pounds of comb honey. 
When honey is extracted from the combs the bees are not 



300 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

required to build new eoml)s and much of their time is saved 
for honey-making. 

There are very few bee-keepers who make this the only 
source of their income. It is usually combined with other 
lines of farming. Bees are kept in both city and country. 
The flowers, or bee-pastures, from which bees secure their 
nectar, must not be too far from the hives of the bees. Bees 
frequently go two or three miles in search of nectar, but their 
main supply should be much nearer. 

Breeds. — The wild honey bees are of the black or German 
variety, brought by early settlers to this country. This breed 
is also kept by a few farmers. The chief objection to bees 
of this breed is that they are very cross and easily excited. 
A number of other breeds have been brought to America. 

Italian bees are now much more in use than any other 
breed. These bees are easily managed, and are good defend- 
ers of their hives. They are good honey gatherers. Italian 
bees are easily recognized by the three yellow l^ands across 
the body behind the wings. They are more difficult to 
keep over winter than some of the other kinds. Hj-brid 
bees are commonly found in American bee yards. Many 
of these have been formed by Italian bees crossing with 
other breeds. 

Cyprian bees are the best honey gatherers, but they have 
bad tempers and their management is difficult. 

Carniolan bees are very quiet. They are the largest of 
all our breeds of bees, and have great wing power. As honey 
gatherers they are among the best. They multiply in the 
hives quite rapidly and much time is spent in swarming to 
divide the colony. 

Caucasian bees are very gentle, good workers, and defend 
their hives well. They swarm rather too often if kept in 
small hives. 

Syrian bees are much like the Cyprians in temper, and 
they are not as thrifty workers. 



BEE-KEEPING 301 

The Colony. — Bees in a colony are of three kinds, u'orkers, 
drones, and queens. The workers number from 30,000 to 
40,000 in a colony at the beginning of the gathering season. 
These do all the work of the colony ; they are really females, 
but never lay eggs. There are only a fcAv hundred drones 
or male bees, and only one queen. The queen bee lays all 
the eggs to produce new colonies. 

The Life of Bees. — The workers, acting as nurse bees, 
place the eggs, laid by the queen, in the bottom of the wax- 
cells. The larva hatches from the egg in about tliree days 
and is fed with pollen and honey by the nurse bees. In five 
days the pupa stage is reached. It rests as a pujDa for thirteen 
days, when the mature insect appears. Twenty-one days 
are thus used in the development of worker bees. Queens 
are produced in a little less time, and drones require twenty- 
four days. The first duty of the j^oung workers is to act as 
nurses. But in about two weeks they begin gathering honey. 
Workers usually wear their wings out and die in less than one 
season. Queens live several years. The drones are nearly 
all killed and thrown out in the fall or before the winter is 
over. The life of the colony is kept up by young bees. 

Honey=Making. — Worker-bees visit flowers, suck the 
nectar, and store it in honey sacks in their bodies. They 
fly to the hive and deposit the nectar in wax cells, made by 
other workers. Some of the workers dry out the nectar by 
producing a breeze with their wings over the cells. Study 
the structure of the worker-bee as shown in Fig. 206. 

White clover, alsike clover, alfalfa, basswood, locust, 
fruit trees, buckwheat, and golden-rod are among the best 
plants for the production of nectar. There are hundreds of 
plants grown for other purposes which are used by bees in 
the making of honey. 

Hives. — A good beehive is in the form of a box with a 
removable bottom and top (Fig. 207). The bottom projects 
to form an entrance platform. A small slot is made in the 



302 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 




Fig 206 — Bee structures: a, worker-bee, pollen loaded; 6. moutli parts of a 
long-tongue<l'bee; c, hind lee of bee showing pollen carrier; rf. wax cutter iind 
cuiry-comb of 1st joint of hind leg; e, antenna-cleaner of fore leg; /, hair of bumble- 
bee; fy, h. i. hairs of three different kinds of bees. (From bmith's Insect Fnends 
and Enemies.") 



BEE-KEEPING 



303 



front just above the floor for the entrance of bees. Frames 
are hung inside the box, and are supplied with honeycomb. 
These combs will become filled with honey and young bee- 
bread. Then another box called a swper is placed above the 
first one. If comb honey is wanted for use or for market, 
the super is supplied with small frames to hold one pound 
each. If liquid, or extracted, honey is wanted the frames 
in the super are much larger. From these the honey is 
removed without destroying the cells. 




Fig. 207.- 



-Typical beehive. (From "The A, B, C of Bee C\ilture, 
A. I. Root Company.) 



Swarming.- — In early summer the hives of bees usually 
become overcrowded with bees, because of the young broods 
maturing. This brings on the desire to swarm. One queen 
goes out with the swarm, usually leaving a queen cell in the 
old hive from which a young queen emerges in a few days. 
The swarm usually gathers on some object, as a tree near by. 
If an empty hive is ready the queen and most of the bees 
can be taken while quiet and placed near the entrance to 
the hive or in the hive. The colony will then adopt this as 



304 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

its new home. It is important that hives be watched closely 
at the season when most of the swarming is done. This will 
help to prevent loss of swarms. Many swarms are lost each 
j'ear by not knowing when the queen and bees leave the hive. 
One way of preventing loss in this way is to keep the wings 
of the queen clipped so that she cannot fly away. This is a 
common practice among bee-keepers. 

Winter Care. — Bees should be protected during severe 
winter weather. They may be placed in sheds or dry cellars, 
or in houses built for the purpose. They must not be kept too 
warm, but sudden change in temperature is bad for the bees. 
Hives are sometimes made double and the space between the 
walls is filled wdth sawdust or other material. The hives are 
sometimes covered with straw, carpet or other means of 
protection. The door is left open so that bees may exercise 
on warm daj^s. 

Exercise. — Bee Studies. — Students may tell what plants 
thej' have seen bees visiting for hone3\ Also what methods 
they know to prevent the stinging of bees; how hiving of 
swarms is done; and what means of protection are used in 
winter by local bee-keepers. 

REVIEW 

1. Name the several breeds or races of bees. 

2. Which one is most in use in America ? What are its character- 
istics ? 

3. What three kinds of bees are in a colony ? About how many of 
each kind ? 

4. Describe the development of the young honey bee. 

5. Describe the making of honey. 

6. Tell how a beehive is made. 

7. What is the super. ^ What is it for ? 

8. Why do bees swarm ? When is this most common ? 

9. Tell of the need for winter care of bees. 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 442, Bee Diseases; 
447, Bees. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 305 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
FEEDS AND FEEDING. 

The nourishment and development of animals is more 
complicated than the growth of plants. Their growth is 
from the use of substances ready formed in plants, or which 
have been derived from them. These are transformed into 
flesh and bone. 

Composition of Animals. — The animal body is composed of 
substances derived directly or indirectly from plants. It may 
be divided into two classes of products, water and dry matter. 

Water ordinarily is more than one-half of the total weight 
of the live animal and is necessary for the proper nourishment 
of the body. Pure fresh water should be supplied freely to 
all animals. 

The dry or solid matter of an animal's body is made up 
of several different substances, called tissues, as fat, muscle, 
bone and others. The chief substances which enter into 
these are fat, protein, horny matter and mineral matter. 

Exercise. — Water in Flesh. — Heat a small piece of fresh 
lean beef or other meat in a long glass test tube. Notice 
the water which rises and collects on the cooler parts of the 
vessel. If delicate scales or balances are in the school, the 
meat may be weighed before and after heating. Thus the 
weight of water driven off may be determined. 

Exercise. — To Get Dry Matter. — Place a few small pieces 
of air-dry wood of any kind in a glass test-tube or bottle 
over a flame or on a hot stove. The moisture will escape 
from the wood and condense on the cooler parts of the glass 
above the wood where it can be seen. After a time only the 
dry matter will remain in the bottom of the glass. If the 
wood be weighed before and after drying, the per cent of 
dry matter may be determined. 
20 



306 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Essentials in Animal Feeds. — As the animal body con- 
sists of several classes of substances, it demands similar 
classes from the feeds consumed. The substances in animal 
feeds are: (1) Protein, (2) carbohydrates, (3) fats, (4) mineral 
salts. 

Protein. — The protein of a feed includes vegetable albu- 
men, fibrin, and other substances similar to the protein of 
the animal body. The term albumenoids was formerly used 
to designate this class of substances when contained in feed 
or in animal tissues. 

The different kinds of protein substances vary somewhat 
in their composition. They are all rich in nitrogen, and are 
quite uniform in their value in feeds. They are the most 
important of the compounds in feed, and are indispensable, 
as they are the sole direct source of the protein in the bodies 
of all domestic animals. The chief forms in which protein 
is found in the animal's body are: albumen, fibrin, and casein. 
These differ widely in appearance but agree in containing 
about the same per cent of nitrogen. Gluten is abundant 
in wheat. Albumen is well represented by the white of an 
egg. Fibrin is seen in the white solid of coagulated blood 
remaining after the red color is washed out. Casein is the 
basis of cheese. 

Exercise. — Protein in Wheat. — Make some stiff dough 
of wheat flour. Wash the dough in cold water to remove 
the starch. The remainder will become very elastic. It is 
made up chiefly of that kind of protein called gluten. The 
"gum" formed from chewing wheat is also chiefly gluten. 

Exercise. — Study of Protein. — Examine some of the 
other substances mentioned, and let pupils become familiar 
with the different forms of protein. Have present the white 
of egg, both raw and cooked. American cheese or cottage 
cheese, or both, may be put into small bottles AAith a weak 
solution of formalin to preserve them for future use in 
illustrating that form of protein called casein. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 307 

Carbohydrates. — Plant fiber, sugar and starch are the 
most important of the carbohydrates. They are of about 
the same composition, containing carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen only, no nitrogen being present. 

The cell wall or structural part of a plant is called cellulose. 
Where great strength is needed, the cell walls become thick 
and hard as in trees. There is little cellulose in seeds. It 
is found in greater proportions in ripe hay, straw, and corn 
fodder. Paper is now chiefly made from the cellulose or 
fiber of wood. Flax fiber and cotton are good examples of 
nearly pure cellulose. Pure fiber has very little color, odor, 
or taste. 

Exercise. — Cellulose. — Make wet paper balls of as many 
different kinds of paper as you have in school. The water 
will remove starch and other substances and leave the pure 
fiber or cellulose. Bro%vn paste-board may be used to illus- 
trate the fiber in straw of small grains. Fiber of flax is 
found in linen paper and linen cloth. Most soft white 
paper is made of wood fiber. 

Starch is stored by nearly all kinds of plants. It is a very 
abundant substance. Small grains, corn, and the dry matter 
of root crops are especially rich in this substance. Potatoes 
and corn furnish most of the pure starch in the commerce 
of America. Because of its abundance and ease of digestion, 
starch is one of the most important feeds. It is readily 
converted into glucose, or grape sugar, by treatment with 
acids. The glucose syrups are largely derived from the 
starch of corn. 

Exercise. — Showing Starch. — Cut open kernels of corn, 
wheat, rye, and other common grains. Examine the white 
powder. This is nearly pure starch. 

Sugars are closely related to starch. There are three 
kinds: cane sugar, milk sugar, and grape or fruit sugar. 
These are very much alike in composition. All resemble each 
other in their properties. Cane sugar is the common sugar 



308 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

of commerce. It is derived from the stems of sugar-cane 
and from the sugar-beet. Milk sugar is from the milk of the 
cow and other animals. Grape or fruit sugar is abundant 
in honey and sweet fruits and occurs in the juices of 
many plants. <^ 

Sugars are easily digested, as they are all readily solu])le 
in water. When animals eat sugar beets and sorghum fodder 
the sugar is used directly as feed. Sugar is a very important 
feed and although it occurs only in small quantities in 
ordinary feeds, it is formed in large quantities from starch 
during digestion. 

Fat. — The fat in animals agrees closely in composition 
with that contained in plants. Fat exists in some seeds, as 
flax and cotton, in such quantities as to make them valuable 
as sources of oil, for feed and other uses. Most of the oil 
is pressed out before the remainder of the seed is used 
for feed. 

Exercise. — To Show Presence of Oil. — Get seeds of flax, 
cotton, sunflower, or castor bean. Crash them and rub 
between the fingers to detect the oil. It has been stored 
there by plants for future use of the young plant sprouting 
from the seed. 

Mineral Matter is what remains of plants after they have 
been burned; it is the ash. Some plants, as alfalfa, are rich 
in mineral matter. In ordinary fodders there is usually 
enough to supply the needs of the animal body. Common 
salt is fed separately. Hogs are fed with ashes and charcoal 
from wood and cobs, to supply them with more mineral 
matter. They even get much mineral matter from the 
soil itself. 

Analysis of Feeds. — The State laws of most States author- 
ize the agricultural experiment stations to take samples of 
feeds offered for sale within the State and make analyses of 
them. The reports of these analyses usually show the per 
cent of total dry matter and water, and the per cents of 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



309 



protein, carbohydrates, fat, and mineral matter (Fig. 208). 
Such reports are very valuable to all stock feeders, as the 
figures indicate as clearly as is possible the feeding value of 
each kind analyzed. Those feeds, rich or poor in any one 
ingredient, as protein, may be easily compared in the pub- 
lished tables. (See Appendix.) 

Feeds Changed Into Animal Tissues. — The object of 
feeding is to furnish material for supporting life, and for 
building up the animal body and the securing of some prod- 




FiG. 208. — The bottle at the right represents 100 ounces of shelled com. The 
five bottles at the left represent tlie chemical composition of this corn as determined 
by analysis. The elements are as follows: starch, 80.35 ounces; protein, 10.92 
ounces; oil^ 4.70 ounces; fiber, 2.60 ounces; ash, 1.43 ounces. 



net, as milk from cows, eggs from hens, wool from sheep. 
Each of the four classes of compounds of the feed is of special 
use in the process. Any one alone, as starch or fat, is unable 
to completely nourish the body and maintain life. 

Animals are incapable of making very great changes in 
these feed compounds. Each is changed into similar animal 
products in the living animal by a series of processes called 
digestion, circulation, respiration, secretion, and absorption. 

Loss in These Processes. — In these five processes of 
life, digestion in particular, the substances contained in the 



310 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

feed are not all changed into animal products. Some of the 
feed is used to maintain or carry on the digestion. There is 
always a loss. Any material capable of building up tissue 
or of replacing this loss, in whole or in part, is valuable as 
feed for the animal. 

Nutrients. — Any single compound, like protein or fat, 
is called a nutrient. All feeds must contain nutrients. They 
must be palatable, so stock will like them. They should be 
largely digestible. Some of the feed each day must possess 
enough bulk to properly fill or distend the digestive organs. 

Roughage and Concentrates. — It is common to divide 
all animal feeds into two classes : coarse fodders or roughage, 
and concentrated feeds. By roughage is meant such bulky 
feeds as hay, cornstalks, straw, and green fodders. 

Concentrated feeds are the more highly nourishing mate- 
rials with less bulk. Ground or whole grains, peas, bran, 
middlings, and other mill products are concentrates. 

Hay. — Those forms of hay produced from the true 
grasses, as orchard grass, red top and timothy, are rich in 
carbohydrates and indigestible fiber, but contain very little 
protein. Hay made from alfalfa and clover is nearly as 
bulky, but much richer in protein than the others. 

The value of any hay depends upon the kind or variety, 
the condition at time of cutting, and the success in curing. 

Corn Stalks and Straw. — These are very bulky forms of 
roughage and are so rich in fiber that they are harder to 
digest than good hay. The nutritive matter that first existed 
in the growing crop has passed into the seeds, which have 
been removed. This leaves the straw poorer in both protein 
and carbohydrates. Corn grown for fodder, if the ears are 
not to be removed, should be cut as soon as the grain is well 
glazed. Racks for feeding corn fodder and straw are shown 
in Fig. 211. 

Green Forage Crops. — The growing of crops for green 
forage has been discussed in another chapter. Such feeds are 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 311 

watery in character. They contain, however, the same 
nutrients as the hay made from them, if no loss occurs in 
making the hay. Their weight when green makes them 
difficult to handle. This disadvantage is balanced by the 
saving of all nutrients. Green fodders are more succulent 
and are liked better by stock. They are more easily digested 
than dry fodders, and contain more protein because of being 
cut at an earlier stage of growth. 

Grasses, growing corn, alfalfa, and other fodders when 
cut and fed green to stock are called soiling crops, as 
stated in Chapter X. Many of the best stock feed- 
ers are using such green feeds a great deal. It saves 
much in the way of pasture room. Several times as many 
cows can be fed from a certain field as could pasture well 
on it. The pasture system is too common to need any 
description. 

Ensilage. — Silos are made of various building materials, 
such as wood, brick, stone, and concrete (Figs. 80 and 209). 
They are made air tight and will preserve fodder corn or 
other green feed in such condition as to retain most of the 
succulent qualities of the original product. Such feed is 
called ensilage. It is highly valued on dairy farms, where 
succulence in the daily feed is very important. Corn stalks 
with the ears still attached are cut when the grain is well 
glazed. The whole crop is run through a revolving cutter 
and the small pieces and leaves thrown or blown into the 
top of the tall silo (Fig. 209). The silos are usually round 
and are twelve to twenty feet in diameter. The depth is 
from twenty to forty feet. Small doors along one side allow 
the ensilage to be taken out easily during the winter months, 
or whenever it is being fed. 

Root Crops. — Mangels and beets are groA\Ti especially 
for cows, turnips for hogs and sheep, carrots for horses. But 
these and other root crops may be used for all kinds of farm 
animals. They are valuable as feed particularly when the 



312 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

other feed used is in the dry form. They all contain much 
water and are very succulent. Stock usually like them, and 
the}'- are very digestible. The effect upon the animal system 
is very good. 

Concentrates from Grains. — Many of the concentrates 
in use are made from the grains of the cereals. The various 
products which they furnish are suited for all kinds of farm 




Fig. 209. — A modem brick silo near end of dairy barn. Tlie cutter and pipe through 
which cut corn is blown are in place to begin filling silo. 

animals. Thej'^ are easily digested and nearly all are rich 
in the three groups of feed compounds, protein, carbohy- 
drates, and fats. 

Corn makes up more than half of the concentrate feeds 
used for animals in America. It is largely used for fattening 
hogs and beef animals, and for the feeding of work animals. 
It is rich in carbohydrates and oil, but contains very little 
mineral matter and less protein than the small grains. 
It is used in fattening stock. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 313 

Oats are commonly used as horse feed, particularly in the 
North. They are richer in protein than corn. For this 
reason they make better feed for horses than corn where 
timothy hay is used as roughage. 

By=Products and Mill Feeds. — Millers make flour from 
wheat, rye, barley, and buckwheat, and meal from corn and 
oats. Breakfast foods are made from all of these. In the 
making of these products for human use there are many 
parts of the grains not used; such are called by-products. 
They are all carefully saved and sold for the feeding of 
animals. Bran and middlings are common examples of these. 

There are also by-products from the manufacture of 
starch, glucose, sugar, beverages, oils, and even from the 
dressing and curing of meats. 

The term mill feeds may include also the ground grains, 
either mixed or singly. Corn, oats, and rye are often used in 
the ground form for stock. 

Bran. — The outer coats of wheat, removed in making 
flour, are called bran. Much of the protein of the grain is 
just beneath the outer coats or coverings of the grain and is 
kept with the bran during the milling process. There is a 
higher per cent of protein in wheat bran than in the wheat 
itself. The bran from corn is of little value and is 
seldom sold. 

Wheat Middlings. — The bj^-product from wheat called 
middlings is better than bran in its total amount of nutrients. 
It has as much protein, and is richer in starch. There is 
less fiber in middlings and this makes it better for hogs. 
Shorts is another name given to middlings. Sometimes mill 
sweepings and finely ground wastes are mixed with middlings 
and sold under the name of shorts. 

Gluten Meal. — When starch and glucose syrups are made 
from corn the by-product or remainder of the grain is ground 
up and sold under such names as gluten feed and gluten 
meal. It has in it the protein, the oil, and the bran. It is 



314 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

very high in protein and is mixed with other concentrates 
for the feeding of dairy cows. 

Brewers' Grains. — These are the by-products from brew- 
eries and contain both the })ran and the germs of barley. 
When dried and mixed with other concentrates they are very 
suitable for dairy cows. They are somewhat richer in pro- 
tein than wheat bran. Brewers' grains are sometimes fed 
while very wet. Cows like them in this condition if the grains 
are not allowed to spoil, which they are likely do do in 
warm weather. 

Beet Pulp.— After sugar is extracted from sugar-beets 
the shredded pulp is dried and shipped to all parts of the 
country for use as stock feed. It should be again wet and 
soaked for a few hours before feeding. Dairymen are now 
feeding beet pulp quite extensively as a winter succulence, 
substituting it wholly or in part for ensilage. Its chief 
nutrient is carbohydrate, there being little protein. 

Cottonseed Meal. — Cottonseed meal is one of the richest 
of the concentrates produced from plants for stock feed. 
It is the chief by-product from the cottonseed in the manu- 
facture of cottonseed oil. The hulls are usually first removed 
and the oil pressed out of the cottonseed. The remaining 
feed is ground into the form of meal, and fed to stock with 
grains or other concentrated feeds and with fodders. Cotton- 
seed meal is very rich in protein and has more fat than most 
of the other grains. In feeding it to stock much care must 
be exercised, as when fed too heavily there is sometimes 
a poisonous effect. 

Linseed Meal. — This is frequently called oil-meal in the 
North, as cottonseed meal is less common there. It is a by- 
product from the manufacture of oil from flaxseed. The 
oil is chiefly used for paint. The meal is of two kinds, called 
old process and new process. In the old process the oil is 
l)ressed from the flaxseed and the remaining part is broken 
into small j)ieces or ground into meal for feed. In the new 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



31- 



process the oil is more completely removed by the use of 
gasoline or ether. The difference in their feeding values is 
very slight, as both are rich in protein and show very little 
waste matter. 

Exercise. — Samples of By-Produds. — Get from local 
dealers a collection of samples of all the concentrated feeds 
they have. Put these in small bottles and label them. Write 
to the manufacturers for samples of the cottonseed products, 




Fio. 210. — A. Bepf cattle are fattened \\.;1. <■...., 
(Experiment Station, Kans.) 

B Calves in pasture. Tliey are temporarily put in stancliions when fed 
with skim milk and ground feed. (Experiment Station, Kans.) 



corn products, and the linseed products. Local dealers will 
give you the addresses or get the samples for you. Get the 
names of feeds from the Appendix in making up the list for 
the school collection of samples. 

The Principles of Stock Feeding. — The feeding of animals 
to obtain the best results is one of the most difficult problems 
of the farmer or stockman. It involves a knowledge of the 
feeds used, how to properly balance the nutrients in the daily 



316 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

feed, the best ways of feeding these (Figs. 210 and 211), 
the needs of each class of animals, and a study of individual 
differences between animals of the same kind. 

Digestibility. — There are several factors which influence 
the digestibility of feeds. (1) The less fiber present the 
easier they are to digest. (2) Concentrated feeds digest 
more perfectly than others. (3) Soft seed coats allow seeds 
to digest better than those with hard shells, if swallowed 
whole. (4) Digestion is aided by the grinding and crushing 
of feeds. (5) The early cutting of fodder and hay will aid. 
(6) If well cured and stored the feeds are more completely 
digested. (7) The kind or breed of animal using the feed has 
an influence. (8) Likewise the individuality and age of the 
animal have their influence. 




Fig. 211. — Outdoor feed-racks used for feeding flocks on the range. 

Relation of Feed to Purpose. — We have already learned 
that we must feed not only to maintain the weight and heat 
of the animal, but also to produce certain animal products 
or work. There are many kinds of products. The kind 
and amount of feed must be suited to the special purpose. 
The feeds must be rich in protein when the products 
desired contain much protein. Milk, eggs, lean meat, and 
wool are such products. The animal cannot produce anything 
containing protein without the use of protein in the feed. 

When the purposes are to build up fat or merely to 
maintain the body heat and weight, very little protein is 
required in the feed. If too much protein is fed to an 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 317 

animal when not yielding some protein-bearing product, 
much of it is wasted, and a portion of it may be transformed 
into fat. In the simple maintenance of life, carbohydrates 
and fat are largely fed. They produce the necessary heat 
and energy for such a purpose. For this reason much rough- 
age is fed to animals not at work in the winter time. Timothy 
hay, straw and stalks, with perhaps a little corn grain, are 
enough for the simple maintenance of cattle and horses. 
For a gain in fat these same feeds are used in larger quan- 
tities. Very little protein is then needed. 

In the building of bone, muscle, and other animal tissues, 
as in the growth of young animals, considerable amounts 
of protein and mineral matter are used by the body. It is 
then necessary to use in the daily ration those feeds that 
have been mentioned as being rich in protein. 

Feeding Young Animals. — When a stockman desires a 
profit from the increase in the gain in weight he will feed 
young animals instead of old ones. Their natural growth is 
a factor in his favor. Young animals bring better prices in 
the markets. The thoughtful farmer will fatten lambs and 
pigs rather than old sheep and hogs. The practice of 
fattening baby beef is now more common than the old way 
of keeping beef cattle for several years. 

Feeding Standards. — Scientific men have carefully figured 
the exact amounts of each nutrient required by the animal's 
body. The results of their work are called feeding standards. 
Wolff and Lehmann are two German experimenters who have 
published standards for stockmen to follow. There are fixed 
standards for each kind of animal and for each purpose of 
feeding. For example, a thousand-pound cow giving twenty- 
two pounds (about eleven quarts) of milk daily is to be given 
such an amount of feed as to equal 29 pounds of dry matter, 
2 . 5 protein, 14 . 1 carbohydrates and fat combined. The 
feeding standards commonly used are given in the Appendix. 
In order to obtain the proper amounts of each of the nutrients 



318 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

to meet the standards it is often necessary for the farmer to 
sell some grain, such as corn, and to purchase others of dif- 
ferent composition. 

Balanced Rations. — When the nutrients are in the proper 
amounts to meet the requirements of the feeding standard 
the ration is said to be a balanced ration. If they are not in 
the right proportion it is called unbalanced. Very few natural 
feeds conform closely to the standards given for the various 
purposes of feeding. They must be combined with other 
feeds in such a way as to balance the daily ration. 

Nutritive Ratios. — The amount of protein in any feed 
compared with the other nutrients is called the nutritive 
ratio. For example, there are about three pounds of protein 
and six of other nutrients in one hundred pounds of skim 
milk. Dividing the six by three (6^3 = 2) the ratio is found 
to be two. It is expressed thus — 1 : 2. The nutritive ratios 
are given in the feeding table in the Appendix. 

In calculating these ratios the fat is not added directly 
to the carbohydrates, but it is first multiplied by two and 
one-fourth and then added. This is done for the reason that 
fat in any feed is two and one-fourth times as valuable as 
carbohydrate in the producing of heat and fat. 

To make this clear, the ratio for alfalfa hay may be 
figured. The digestible nutrients in one hundred pounds of 
alfalfa are : 1 . 2 pounds of fat, 39 . 6 pounds of carbohydrates, 
and 11 pounds of protein. 

1.2X234^=2.7 (fat equivalent to c.h.). 

2 . 7 + 39 . 6 = 42 . 3 (total nutrients not protein) . 

42 . 3 -^ 1 1 = 3 . 84 (ratio, expressed 1 : 3 . 84) . 

Comparison of Clover with the Standard. — Red clover 
hay is very nearly a balanced feed for dairy cows giving 
twenty-two poimds of milk daily. It comes as near the feed- 
ing standard for such a purpose as any one feed can without 
mixing with other feeds. Feeding a great amount of any 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 319 

one feed is not advisable, as all animals want a little variety. 

Dry ProtPin C-K- Nutritive 

Matter frotein and Fat Ratio 

Standard for 1000-lb. cow 

giving 22 lbs. milk 29. 2.5 14.1 1:5.6 

Nutrients in 35 lbs. red 

clover hay 29.64 2.38 13.86 1:5.8 

Thirty-five pounds of clover hay give a little too much 
dry matter and not quite enough of either class of nutrients. 
The ratio is a little too wide. A ratio that is greater than 
that given in the standard is said to be too wide ; if too small 
it is too narrow. Alfalfa hay has too narrow a ratio (1:3.8) 
for dairy cows when fed alone. Corn with cobs (1:15.1) 
is too wide for this purpose. The two can be combined in 
such a way as to make a ration very close to the standard, 
as shown below : 

Dry T> t ■ C. H. Nutritive 

Matter ^^""otem ^^^ p^^. j^j^^^j 

21 lbs. alfalfa hay 19.65 2.46 9.05 

10 lbs. corn-and-cob meal 8.49 .44 6.55 

Total 28.14 2.90 15.70 1:5.41 

Standard 29. 2.5 14.1 1:5.56 

It will be seen that if the dairyman feeds twenty-one 
pounds of alfalfa hay and ten pounds of corn-and-cob meal 
the ration is close to the standard; both columns of nutrients 
are a little too high, but the dry matter is a little under the 
standard. It should be remembered that these two feeds are 
both easily produced on the farm and no money is then paid 
out for feed. 

What Stock Like. — It is necessary that a feeder select 
or provide feeds that are liked by the stock. If certain 
feeds are not palatable to the animals, the best results are 
not secured. It is also necessary to avoid too much indi- 
gestible matter. The coarser forms of roughage, such as corn 
fodder, should be run through a cutter, and the hard grains 
are liked better when they are ground. Animals which chew 
their cud, called ruminating animals, as the cow and sheep, 
like more roughage than hogs. All animals like a change 



320 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

of feed, and a little variety in the ration. It should be 
changed gradually and not all at once. 

Exercise. — Palatability of Feeds. — Let the older pupils 
report as to which of the following feeds are liked best by 
stock: clover, alfalfa or timothy hay by cows; turnips or car- 
rots by horses; bright clean corn or mouldy corn by horses. 

Problems. — 1. What is the cost of protein j^er pound in 
clover hay containing 6 per cent protein when the hay is 
valued at $10 per ton? 

2. What is the cost of protein in timothy hay contain- 
ing 3 per cent protein when the hay is worth $18 per ton? 

3. Which hay is better for dairj'' cows? 

Buying Feeds. — A farmer often finds it very advisable 
to sell some of the wheat or other grain and buy instead 
mill feeds and other ])y-products. It is well to select those 
mill feeds which are rich in protein to mix with the farm 
roughage and corn. This will make it easier to balance the 
rations for the different kinds of stock. 

Some roughage may be sold or exchanged for the desired 
concentrates. Timothy hay brings a good price in the mar- 
kets, but is very poor form of roughage hay to keep on the 
farm to feed to dairy cows. Clover hay is far better for cows 
and yet the market price is much lower. 

In deciding which feeds to purchase it is well to decide the 
cost per pound of protein contained in each feed considered. 

Problem. — Figure the cost per pound of protein in each 
of the following concentrates when the prices per ton are 
as follows: Cottonseed meal, $33; linseed meal, old proc- 
ess, $32; brewers' grains, dry, $27; wheat bran, $25; wheat 
middlings, $30; cornmeal, $32. (See the protein contents 
Table of Feeds in the Appendix.) 

Fertilizing value of feeds is a thing to be considered in all 
feeds. When farmers buy feeds they may well consider that 
they are buying fertility for the farm. It is usually better 
to buy mill feeds for farm stock than to buy commercial 
fertilizers. Such feeds are often rich in available organic 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 321 

nitrogen; and the minerals, phosphate and potash, are more 
or less abundant. How much of this fertility reaches the 
soil will always depend upon the care and use of the manure 
from the barns. 

REVIEW 

1. Of what is the solid part of an animal's body composed ? 

2. Tell about how much of the body is water. 

3. Name three or four common forms of protein. 

4. Give the four classes of nutrients needed by animals, besides water. 
.5. Name some of the common feeds rich in protein. 

6. What substances are included by the group termed "carbohy- 
drates?" 

7. Name some feeds rich in starch. 

8. Mention three different kinds of sugar and the sources of each. 

9. Name the five animal processes necessary in changing feed to 
animal tissue. 

10. Give examples of feeds classed as roughage. 

11. Give several examples of feeds classed as concentrates. 

12. Give some examples of crops suitable for being fed green in 
summer when pastures are poor. 

13. Name three feeds suitable for winter succulence. 

14. How is ensilage made ? What is a silo ? 

15. Tell what you can about bran; middlings. 

16. Discuss the character of gluten meal. From what is it made ? 

17. Tell how cottonseed meal is made. 

18. Distinguish between "old process" and "new process" oil meal. 
Which is richer in oil ? 

19. Tell what things influence the digestibility of feeds. 

20. Give two objects of feeding. 

21. What is the sole source of an animal's protein ? 

22. Name the classes of nutrients that may cause the formation of 
fat in the animal body. 

23. Why is it more profitable to feed young animals than old ones 
if we are to sell them by weight ? 

24. Give the weights of the several nutrients for a 1000-pound cow 
giving milk. 

2.5. Of what use are feeding standards ? 

26. What is meant by a nutritive ratio of 1 to 6 ? 

27. Give the meaning of wide ratio and of narrow ratio. 

28. Why u.se feeds which animals crave, rather than feeds they dislike ? 

29. Why do farmers need to buy mill feeds to use with farm feeds? 

30. Why is it better to buy mill feeds than it is to buy commercial 
fertilizers ? 

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 22, The Feeding of Farm 
Animals; 36, Cottonseed and Its Products; 49, Sheep Feeding; 142, 
Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food; 170, Principles of 
Horse Feeding; 295, Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food; 298, 
Food Value of Corn and Corn Products; 346, The Computation of 
Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of Energy Values; 411, Feeding 
Hogs in the South; 441, Japan Clover; 451, Clover, pp. 7-10; 457, A 
Reinforced Brick Silo, pp. 23-24. 
21 



PART III. 
ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 
CATTLE PRODUCTS. 

The most important products from cattle are beef, veal, 
milk, cream, butter, and cheese. Other minor products and 
by-products are skim milk, buttermilk, whey, hides for 
leather, hair for plaster, hoofs and horns for glue, blood and 
bones and other parts for fertilizers. Small useful articles, 
as buttons, knife handles, and others are made from bones 
and horns. 

Cuts of Beef. — The beef type of cattle bring the highest 
prices per pound. This is true Avhen sold either by live weight 
or as dressed meat. This type also gives a higher percentage 
of dressed beef than the carcass of the dairy animal. The 
carcass of the beef animal has a better percentage of weight 
in the high-priced cuts of meat than the others. The quality 
of meat is far better in an animal bred for beef than in a dairy 
cow. Figure 212 gives the names of the different cuts of beef 
as used by butchers and buyers. The retail prices given are 
relative, not actual. 

Products of the Dairy. — In the Avild or primitive condition 
cows gave milk only for their calves. They have since 
acquired the character of giving much more than that, and 
noAv milk has become a standard article of food for man. 

Milk as Food. — Milk is one of the most perfect forms 
of food used by human beings. It is easily digested and 
contains the nutrients in proper i^roportion to supi^ly the 
needs of the body. 
322 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 



323 



In 100 pounds of milk these parts are in about this pro- 
portion: 

Water 87 . pounds 

Fat 4 . pounds 

Casein and albumen (protein) 3.3 pounds 

Sugar (carbohydrates) 5 . pounds 

Mineral matter 0.7 pounds 

Total 100 . pounds 

Fats in Milk are of several kinds, which fall into three 
groups: (1) The volatile or easily evaporated fats. (2) The 
fats that are in liquid form at ordinary temperature. 

r-" - ! 




Fig. 212. — The cuts of a beef animal, giving the relative prices and weights. 

(3) The fats that are in solid form at ordinarj- temperature. 
Some of the volatile fats maj' be allowed to escape by airing 
the milk or cream. If they are not thus removed they soon 
break up into forms which give bitter fiavors to the milk or 
cream. The airing process should be done in a clean room 
where the air is pure and free from dust. 

The fats in milk are lighter than the other parts and 
readily rise to the top; but in so doing they take with them 
certain other parts which compose the cream. 

Casein is the chief protein in milk. It is the important 
ingredient found in cheese, which is familiar to all. There 



324 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

is always a little albumen present. It is similar to the white 
of raw egg. The casein is the main tissue-forming part of 
the milk when used as food. 

Milk sugar is the heat-producing part of milk when used 
as food. When milk sours it is due to the action of bacteria 
which changes the sugar into an acid, called lactic acid. 

The mineral matter in milk is made up of the same minerals 
required by the bones and other body tissues. They are 
very beneficial when milk is used as human food. When 
milk is pasteurized by heating, it loses much of the mineral 
value and is no longer a suitable food for growing children. 
The bones are apt to be too soft when such milk is used 
regularly. 

Composition Varies Naturally. — The milk from dairy 
animals varies in its composition from several causes. The 
main factors are given below : 

1. Breed of animal; as Jerseys have more fat in the milk 
than Holsteins. 

2. Period of lactation; the milk being richer in fat just 
before a cow dries up. 

3. Different parts of same milking; the first is poor in 
fat, the last is rich. 

4. Kinds of feed; this influences quantity of milk chiefly; 
but the character of butter fat is influenced by feed; for 
example, cottonseed meal makes the fat harder than does 
linseed meal. 

Exercise. — Difference in Milk. — Have one of the pupils 
or a farmer save in two separate bottles some of the first 
of the morning's milking and some of the strippings from 
the same cow. One-fourth pint of each will be enough. 
These two bottles may be kept in a cool place for a day 
until the cream has all risen. The difference will then be 
shown by measuring the thickness of the layer of cream in 
each bottle. It is not a bad plan to use the first pint of each 
milking for pigs or calves instead of for human food. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 325 

Exercise. — Bad Flavor in Milk. — Some farmer's son 
may be able to tell the class some of his own experience in 
getting bitter milk when cows have been in weedy pastures 
when the grass is poor. 

Cabbages, wet brewers' grains, and spoiled ensilage may 
flavor the milk if fed only a few hours before milking. To 
avoid such bad effects from those feeds, if used at all, they 
should be fed to the cows when their udders are empty, 
just after milking. 

Exercise. — Composition of Milk. — Prepare a set of bot- 
tles containing the proper amounts of different materials to 
show approximately the composition of one pint of milk. 
Preserve these with a few drops of formalin in each. Use 
the following: 

14 oz. water in a pint bottle. 

}4 oz. melted butter in >2 oz. vial. 

^2 OZ. cheese (protein) in /4 oz. vial. 

J4 oz. milk sugar in 1 oz. bottle. 

H oz. salt (mineral matter) in smallest vial. 

These should be neatly labelled and kept for future reference. 
The set will resemble Figure 208. 

Difficulty in Obtaining Pure Milk. — Healthy milk cows 
naturally produce a pure product, but much of the milk 
used for food is not as pure as it should be. There are many 
chances for the milk to become dirty or infested with bac- 
teria before it is used. Careless and improper methods in 
barns or on the part of those who handle the milk before and 
after it reaches the home are the chief causes of impure milk. 
Milk may be kept pure and free from harmful contamination. 
Poor and unclean milk should not be used for food. 

Bacteria in Milk. — The bacteria in milk are classed as 
either good or bad. Those which cause milk to sour are 
useful when the milk or cream is to be used for making 
butter or cheese. There are many bad forms of bacteria 



326 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



which will produce bad flavors in milk and its products. 
Milk is a substance very favorable to the rapid development 
of both classes of bacteria. These multiply very rapidly 
if the milk is kept warm. There are many ways in which 
bacteria find their way into milk. Some of these are from 
the coats or hairs of the cows, from the dirty hands and 
clothing of milkers, from flies that fall in, from dirty pails, 
cans, strainers, bottles or other utensils, from dust or other im- 
purities in the air of barns, milk-rooms, and homes (Fig. 213). 



Fig. 213 B. 




Fig. 213 A.— Bad construction. Difficult to keep clean. (Animal Industry.) 
Fig. 213 B. — Good construction. Smooth floor, walls, and ceiling, plenty of 
light, easy to keep clean. (Animal Industry.) 



Pure Milk. — Milk of a healthy cow contains no germs 
while forming in the udder. They get into the milk in the 
ways mentioned in the last paragraph. By pure milk is 
meant the properly-handled product of healthy cows. 

To keep dirt and bacteria out of the milk the barns should 
be kept clean. This is made possible only by having the 
floors, walls, and ceilings smooth and tight (Fig. 214). 

Direct sunlight through large south windows will help 
to destroy many bacteria in barns (Fig. 214). 

The air must be free from dust at the time of milking. 
Feeding should be done after milking instead of before. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 



327 



The barn should be properly ventilated to remove bad 
odors, bad air, dust particles, and bacteria. The ventilation 
must be ample and yet free from drafts of air. There are 
two good systems in use. One consists of muslin cloth 
screens placed in several of the open windows. The other 
is the King ventilation system, which draws the foul air out 
from near the floor, through a long shaft or chimney (Fig. 
215). This is the best system for winter ventilation of build- 
ings. 




Fig. 214. — A small but clean dairy barn. (Animal Industry.) 



The cows must be clean if pure milk is to be produced for 
food. Milk always becomes dirty if the cows are dirty. 
The udders and surrounding parts should be washed if 
filthy; and the dust and loose hairs must be removed just 
before milking, by the use of a damp cloth. 

The milker must be healthy, and must have clean hands 
and clean clothes. 

IMilk pails should have small tops because they catch 
less dirt. The pails with good hoods shown in Fig. 216 will 
keep out the most dirt. 

All milk utensils must be washed well and then always 



328 



PRODUCTIVE FAR:\nNG 



scalded thoroughly Avith boiling water to kill the bacteria. 
This is called sterilizing them. 




Fig. 215. — King system of ventilation for dairy bams. The air outlet should 
start near the floor and extend through the roof. The inlet for air into the stable 
is near the ceiling, but should start outside well above the ground. Windows are 
for light, not for ventilation, when the King system is in use. 




Fig. 216. — Five styles of milk pails, intended to reduce the amount of dirt in 
milk which falls in from cows and from milkers. Wliich do you consider the best 
form for this purpose? 

Cooling and Airing. — As soon as milk is draAMi from the 
udder it should be taken to a clean place and thoroughly 
aired and cooled. The temperature should be lowered quickly 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 



329 



to 50° F. or below. This will check the multiplication of 
bacteria that would spoil the milk (Figs. 217, 218). 

Exercise. — Temperature and Souring. — Get two bottles 
of milk, both fresh. Set one in a cool place where it will not 
quite freeze. Set the other in a warm room. Notice the 
difference in time it will take to sour the two bottles of milk. 
These samples may be tasted for sourness and also tested 
with blue litmus paper. 



Fig. 217. 



Fig. 218. 




Fig. 217. — Milk bottles -ndth crushed ic(> in ^liipi)iii>^ l.dx. 
Fig. 218. — Delivery of milk to city houses. 



Bottling Milk and Cream. — Milk and cream to be deliv- 
ered directly to the users should be put into sterilized bottles, 
which are kept covered and cold until the milk is used in 
the home. The old way of delivering milk from cans which 
were opened in the streets to take out the milk for each cus- 
tomer, allowed dust and all kinds of city bacteria to get into 
the milk. Simple machines are used by which milk and 
cream may be put into bottles very rapidly with little hand- 
ling (Fig. 219). 

Special Forms of Market Milk. — There are laws or certain 
regulations in many places which require that milk shall be 
of a certain quality or standard. 



330 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Legal milkusually containsthree percent of fat andnot less 
than twelve per cent of total solids, which includes every- 
thing but the water. This is the most common form of milk 
delivered to consumers, and to butter and cheese factories. 

Milk is also standardized by certain producers of milk for 
special markets. A certain dairyman may produce milk for 
his customers which will always have any desired percentage 
of butter fat. This is done by mixing rich milk or cream Avith 
poor milk in such amounts as to give the desired results. 




Fir. 219. — Milk bottled for the retail market. The machine at the left fills eight 
bottles at once and is then moved to the next row. 

Certified milk is that which meets the requirements of 
milk commissioners, as to purity and safet}'. The barns, 
milk-rooms, methods of handling and delivering are all 
inspected by experts, and certificates are issued to all dair}'- 
men who meet the requirements of the milk commissioner. 

Condensed milk is now extensively canned and shipped 
for use in many places. Much of the w^ater is removed by 
evaporation. Sometimes sugar is added. It will keep a long 
time while sealed, and is used by armies in the field, on board 
ships at sea, in mining camps, and is becoming more popular 
in cities. 

Powdered milk is a newer and less common form of market 
milk. Some of the fat is usually first removed, and then the 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 331 

milk is evaporated to dryness without burning. Before being 
used it is mixed with water. 

Modified milk is prepared for use of infants and invahds, 
by increasing or decreasing one or more of the parts of the 
milk, to suit special cases. 

Fermented milk and ripened milk are made from skim 
milk or from whole milk. The proper bacteria are added to 
cause the souring and thickening of the milk, as cream is 
ripened for churning. When ready for use it is somewhat 
similar to buttermilk. 

Creaming. — There are three common methods of obtain- 
ing the cream from milk. (1) The shallow pan method is 
the oldest and most common. (2) The deep can method is 
sometimes used when much milk is to be handled. The 
large cans of milk are kept in cold water until the cream 
rises. The skim milk is drawn off through a faucet at the 
bottom. (3) The modern centrifugal bowl separator is the 
only quick way of removing the cream from milk (Figs. 
220, 221). In all types of these machines the milk flows into 
a rapidly whirling metal bowl. The speed is ver}- great, 
and the skim milk, being heavier, is thrown to the outer edge 
and runs out. The cream overflows near the centre of the 
bowl. 

Ripening Cream for Churning. — As soon as cream is 
separated from the milk it must be cooled and kept cold 
until about twelve hours before it is to be churned into 
butter. It is then warmed to a temperature at which the 
bacteria will grow to make it sour. This may be G0° to 
75° F. It will sour faster when warmer, but will not make so 
good butter. At churning time the temperature should be 
about 58° in the summer and 60° or 62° in the Avinter. 
Ripened cream should be slightly sour to the taste and pour 
as a thick, smooth, glossy liquid, free from lumps or curds. 
When ready to churn, it should be poured through a strainer 
to remove any curds that might be present. 



332 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Steps in Churning. — 1. Put the cream into the churn 
and add a little vegetable butter-color. 

2. Operate the churn steadily and slowly to cause the 
globules to be affected by the dashing movement. 

3. Stop the churning when the granules are the size of 
large grains of wheat or peas. 

4. Strain the buttermilk out, leaving the butter in the 
churn as loose and open as possible. 



Fig. 220. 



Fig. 221. 




Fig. 220. — A modem hand separator. Cream separators of small size are used 
on dairy farm.s where cream or butter is sold. 

Fig. 221. — School pupils learning to operate a cream separator. (X. E.) 



5. Wash the butter with cold water twice, bj^ pouring 
it on and draining it off. Use as much cold water each time 
as half the amount of the buttermilk. 

6. Sprinkle over the loose butter enough salt to suit the 
taste. One ounce of salt to a pound of butter suits the usual 
market. 

7. Work the butter in large masses, but not enough to 
give it a smeared or greasy appearance. 

8. Mold or pack to suit the market requirements, as in 
pound molds covered with parchment paper. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 333 

Cheese. — Whole milk cheese is very nutritious as a food 
and the use of it has greatly increased in recent years. It 
is rich in both casein and fat. There are many kinds of 
cheese sold in the markets, but the steps in making the vari- 
ous kinds are similar. These steps are: (1) The coagulation 
of the casein, with or without a special material, called 
rennet; (2) the removal of the whey; (3) salting; (4) pressing; 
and (5) ripening. 

Dairy Records. — ^Records should be kept of the milk 
produced by each cow so that the owner may know which 
ones are paying best. The profits from each cow cannot be 
determined unless a record is kept of the daily flow of milk. 
If the milk is used for making butter or cheese, the records 
should then also show the richness of the milk from each 
cow. The milk of each cow should be frequently weighed 
and a sample of it tested for butter fat. If the weighing 
is done one day each week, for three weeks of the month, an 
approximate record of the amount of milk given each month 
may be easily determined. It is better to weigh the milk 
each time just after it is draAvn from each cow. Samples for 
testing should be taken after the milk is poured into another 
vessel, as this mixes the milk, and a truer sample is obtained. 
The samples are easily preserved, until time for testing, by 
the use of special poison tablets made for the purpose. Cows 
which do not yield good profits should not be kept. Many 
do not pay their board. 

Keeping the dairy record is made easy by having a good 
spring balance hanging near the record sheet in the barn 
(Fig. 222). 

The Babcock Test. — The method of testing milk for 
determining the amount of fat was devised by Dr. S. M. 
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. It is very 
simple and gives accurate results. A set of the apparatus 
used in this test is shown in Fig. 223. 

Exercise. — Testing Milk and Cream. — Some one near 
the school, who has a Babcock test outfit, may be invited 



334 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



to bring it before the class and give a lesson in testing sam- 
ples of milk and cream. Or perhaps it will be as well for the 
class to take a trip to a near-by creamery and observe the 
operation. If possible the school should own an outfit. 
The students could then test samples of milk from the cows 
of the neighborhood. 

Exercise. — Skim Milk and Buttermilk. — Samples of skim 
milk from two or more separators should be tested to deter- 






Fig. 222. — The weight of each cow"s milk i.* written on the record sheet. 

mine which one removes the cream the best. If butter- 
milk is tested, this will tell how well the churning has removed 
the butter. 

Principles of the Babcock Test.— The testing of milk by 
this method is founded on the fact that very strong acid will 
dissolve all the substances in the milk except the butter fat. 
The particles of fat are thus set free from the rest. As the 
fat is the lightest part of the milk, it will rise to the top. 
This takes place in a few minutes if the bottles of milk are 
placed in a whirling machine (centrifugal). In other words, 
the heavier parts of the milk are thro\Aii to the bottom. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 335 

In making the test a definite, or measured, amount of 
milk is put into a bottle with a long, narrow neck and just 
enough acid is mixed with this to set free the fat. After the 
fat is brought to the top by the whirling force, some hot water 
is added to fill the bottle up to the neck. A second whirling 
brings the fat above this water. A little water is again added 
to float the fat up even with the scale on the neck of the 
bottle. The third whirling gathers all the fat together in 
the neck of the bottle so that the length of the column of 




Fig. 223. — Glass-ware and machine for making Babcock test for butter fat in 
milk, cream, and skim milk. (.Experiment Station, Wis.) 



the fat may be read on the scale. The neck must have been 
correctly scaled, to give the result in percentage of the 
amount of milk first put into the bottle. Thus if the fat 
fills four full spaces of the neck of the bottle, the milk is 
four per cent fat. 

Details of the Test. — Sampling. — Shake or otherwise 
mix the samples to be tested just before beginning, the work. 
It must not be hot nor very cold. ^Measure out 17.6 cc. 
(cubic centimeters) by drawing milk into the long pipette 
(Fig. 223, P), just up to the mark. Suck the milk into the 
pipette with the mouth; put a finger over the top and let 
enough drip out until the top is exactly even with the mark. 



336 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

Let this milk flow gently down the long neck into the 
test bottle, M. Do not spill any. Blow in the last drop. 
The steps thus far are the most particular and should be 
practised with water a few times or until the work can be 
done well. Always make the test in duplicate to avoid 
error, using two bottles. 

Adding the Acid must be done carefully. Be ready to 
wash up any spilled acid quickly, as its burns are serious. 
Use water freely and add soap or soda if needed. The acid 
is measured up to the 17.5 cc. mark, in the little cylinder 
or acid measure, A. Pour it into the milk sample in the test 
bottle, holding the bottle in a slanting position to let the 
acid pass by the outgoing air. 

Mixing the milk and acid is now done by holding the 
bottle by the neck and giving it a circular motion for a few 
minutes. Do not point the mouth towards yourself nor 
any one else. Mix until the contents are dark colored 
throughout. The action of the acid makes it very hot. 

Whirling. — Place the test bottles in the whirling machine 
in pairs, directly opposite each other, to perfectly balance 
the machine. The speed to run the machine depends on its 
diameter and is usually marked on the machine. Run it 
five minutes. Stop and add hot water to fill each test bottle 
up to the bottom of the neck. Whirl two minutes. Add 
hot water to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of the 
scale (graduation) on the neck. Whirl one minute. During 
all the whirling and the reading the test bottles must be 
kept hot by putting hot water into the machine under the 
bottles. 

Reading the Result.— Take the bottle by the top of the 
neck and hold the scale level with the eye. Read the marks 
at the extreme top and bottom of the fat. The difference 
between these is the percentage of fat in the sample. For 
example, if the bottom reads 3 . 2 and the top reads 7 . 4 the 
percentage of butter fat would be the difference, or 4.2. 



CATTLE PRODUCTS 337 

This percentage, 4.2, of fat in the milk would mean that 
there are 4.2 pounds of fat in 100 pounds of milk. The 
glassware must be kept clean so that the test and the reading 
will be accurate. 

Skim Milk and Buttermilk are tested in special bottles 
having double necks (S, Fig. 223) . 

Cream is tested in bottles with extra large necks (C), 
because there is so much fat in it. The sample taken is 
weighed instead of measured. 

REVIEW. 

1. Give two reasons why the beef type of animals is preferable 
for beef. 

2. Name three of the highest priced cuts of meat. 

3. Why is milk considered a complete food for young animals ? 

4. Tell what you can of the composition of butter fat. 

5. What is meant by volatile fat ? 

6. Why should volatile fats be allowed to escape from milk when 
freshly drawn from the cow? 

7. What per cent of average milk is water ? Name the other sub- 
stances in the order of their greatest abundance. 

8. What are the usual differences in composition of milk drawn at 
different times? 

9. At which part of the milk period is milk the richest ? 

10. Tell of the influence of feed on the character of butter fat in 
milk. 

11. Tell of the different effects of good and bad bacteria in milk. 

12. How can clean methods in barns help to keep bacteria out of 
milk 

13. Mention six ways in which bacteria may get into milk. 

14. Describe the King system of taking foul air out of the barn. 

15. What are the best forms of milk pails ? 

16. Tell how to sterilize milk utensils. 

17. Describe the conditions for ripening milk. 

18. Give the steps in making good butter. 

19. Why should dairymen keep records of individual cows? 

20. How is this done ? Why should the milk of each cow be tested ? 

21. Of what use is the Babcock test outfit ? 

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 29, Souring and Other 
Changes in Milk; 42, Facts About Milk; 74, Milk as Food; 131, House- 
liold Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter; 
166, Cheese Making on the Farm; 201, Cream Separators on Westerr 
Farms; 241, Butter Making on the Farm; 348, Bacteria in Milk ; 363, 
The Use of Milk as Food; 413, Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home; 
457, Production of Sanitary Milk, p. 20, Lacto, A New and Healthful 
Frozen Dairy Product, p. 21. 

22 



PART IV. 

FARM manage:\ient. 



CHAPTER XXX. 
THE BUSINESS OF FARMING. 

Changes in Farming. — Young men and, indeed, older 
people who live in the city of to-da}' scarcely realize the 
great change that is taking place in American country life 
and the farmer's business. In fact, so many new principles 
are being introduced that persons who have been off the 
farm only a few years have no idea of the modern ways of 
doing things by up-to-date methods. To be sure, there are 
some things which have not changed, but there have been 
radical changes along the lines which concern and affect the 
financial side of the business. 

Some Causes.^ — Most of these changes have been brought 
about through the instruction along advanced lines given 
by State agricultural colleges; by the farmers' institutes; 
in bulletins from the State experiment stations and the 
United States Department of Agriculture, and, as a corollary 
of all this, the improvement of farm papers and magazines. 
The United States Government does more to advance the 
interests of agriculture than is done for other lines of edu- 
cation by the four largest universities in America. Many 
legislative changes have been made tending toward the 
improvement of the rural classes. The increase in American 
export trade has done much to advance the price of farm 
produce. 

As prices for land advance and competition increases, it 
becomes necessary to adopt the most modern methods of 
338 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 339 

farming in order that the profits may be reaped from smaller 
areas. The invention of machinery has played an important 
part in the introduction of new methods. 

The results of these changes are only just beginning to 
be realized. Many may think that fewer people will be 
needed upon the farms. The very opposite is true. But 
instead of the farmer of the future being an uneducated per- 
son, he is coming to be well prepared for his new calling. 

The Best Men Needed. — The farm demands men who 
are prepared for their chosen work. Men with the best 
brains are wanted on the farm. The time is rapidly drawing 
near when no occupation can be found which will demand 
a better preparation than farming. A wide knowledge of 
science; a thorough understanding of basic principles of 
plant and animal life; a constant acquaintance with the 
world's market quotations and how to interpret them; a 
clear insight into reasons underlying all farm operations; 
a close attention to all details of the business; a steadiness 
in all matters pertaining to the operations of the farm; 
courage to act, and act quickly, at the proper time; good 
physical strength and power of endurance; — these are some 
of the quaUties demanded of the farmer by the farm of to- 
morrow. Already we hear the call for such men. 

Some Contrasts. — Take a ride across any agricultural 
section of America in the fall and you will find many of the 
cornfields remain uncut. Some few farmers have learned 
that the corn stalks contain forty per cent of the crop, and 
are careful to utilize it. 

A certain man was seen applying barn-j'ard manure to 
recently drained swamp land when already the place was 
too full of unrotted vegetable matter to produce its best 
crops; his neighbors spread manure on the poorer soils of 
the uplands. 

Many dairymen are keeping dairy cows which do not 
pay more than five dollars each over the cost of keeping them 



340 PRODUCTIVE FARMING 

each year; while others clear fifty dollars or more a year from 
each cow above the cost of feed and labor. 

Farmer "A" will be deluded by the false belief that the 
creamery separators will kill germs of tuberculosis and thus 
prevent that disease from spreading from one herd to others 
in the neighborhood. "B" will investigate the matter, and 
if neighboring cattle are thought to have the disease 
he will promptly stop taking skim milk from the butter 
factory. He will retain his own herd's pure skim milk on his 
place and sell cream only. 

System in Farming. — In all parts of the country farmers 
need to put more business and system into their farming. 
Too little system is the chief cause of failure in many in- 
stances. On farms that are successful more system could be 
introduced with profit. No other calling of man could with- 
stand the lack of system which is often found in farming. 

Mapping the Farm. — Begin by mapping out the farm. 
It is not necessar}^ to employ a surveyor. First make a rough 
sketch of the outline of the fields as they now exist. State 
the area of each field or division as nearly as possible. With 
this sketch as a basis to work from, then measure the real 
length of each line represented on the chart. A man and 
a boy with a tape line fifty or one hundred feet long will 
be able to measure all the lines in a few hours. Write the 
lengths on the chart. 

Now you are ready make a corrected map. With a foot 
rule or yard measure, a large sheet of paper and a pencil, you 
can make a map with true proportions very easily. Previous 
work in map drawing will aid in getting directions of lines. 
Of course a scale must be established, say one inch on the map 
to five hundred feet on the land. After the map is drawn 
it will be easier to calculate the true area of each field. 

Planning the Crops. — On each division or field we should 
next write the name of the crop or crops which that field 
produced last year, as "Oats followed by clover." Then 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 341 

establish the rotation that each field is to follow for several 
years. Several rotations of crops are suggested in the chapter 
on Systems of Cropping. Let each field on the map be 
marked with the main crops it is to grow for several years, 
as shown in the school map (Fig. 97). 

Dairy farms will be planned to produce plenty of green 
and dry forage, as well as some root crops, grain, and corn. 
During the long winter evenings a farmer and his family 
should sketch the farm and plan the special crops for the 
following season on each field. 

Exercise. — Mapping School Grounds. — Let the whole 
class, or those who have the most time to spare from other 
work, measure the school grounds and make maps of it on 
large paper. Each line should be marked with the length 
it represents on the ground. The scale on a map is always 
given for a map in a geography. Let the scale for this map 
be as large as the paper will accommodate. Try one inch 
to four feet for a very small place, or one inch to 100 feet 
for a large place. Figure 101 suggests a good plan for 
school grounds with a school garden. 

Elements of Business Success. — Farmers should keep 
records and accounts. This is one of the commonest reasons 
for the great success of certain farmers as compared with 
others who seem to farm by the same methods. The farmer 
who keeps clear and simple accounts always knows his 
business, and can stop the losses that occur. He should keep 
records of all agreements with men and thus avoid many 
disputes or law suits. Records regarding crops or stock will 
help to bring about the best financial results. 

A memorandum book should be kept in which are written 
the dates of the first killing frosts each fall; the dates of the 
opening of fruit buds in spring; the dates of bad spring freezes; 
the birth of all kinds of live stock; the dates when each field 
is sown and harvested; and many other important events of 
the year. 



342 



PRODUCTIVE FARMING 



Keeping Farm Accounts. — All farm accounts should be 
so simple as to require very little time in keeping them. They 
should also be easily referred to, and give the desired infor- 
mation in a few moments. What is known as a single entry 
system is easy to understand and requires little time. When 
a calf is sold for cash the entry is made on that date in the 
cash account, "Calf sold, $10.00." 

The "Column System" is still more simple, but requires 
a special ruling for the purpose. Any book with a number 
of money columns will be easily adapted to farm ])urposes. 



--,f-p 


-,/ IK:^V- 




n ^ 1 


. ■ t 


















^Im^ 


■L:i_^ 






Fig. 224. — The column sy.stem of keeping farm accounts 



The pages are wide and the names of accounts are written 
at the tops of the narrow columns. The left-hand page is 
for the sales and receipts, and the right for expenses or 
purchases. The photograph of the open page is shown in 
Fig. 224. Down both sides the dates are written or printed, 
one line being used for each day of the month. The two 
pages show all the business of one month. Each department 
of the business is given an item column and a money column. 
A similar book with other names for the columns should 
be used in keeping the household expenses. The columns 
could be headed: Furnishings, Wearing Apparel, Food, 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 343 

Personal Expenses, Repairs, Education and Church, Reading, 
Sundries, and others. 

Exercise. — Using the Column System. — Let students 
rule a sheet of paper for the column system, following the 
plan shown in Fig. 224. Then make ten or more appropriate 
entries, as practice work. Girls in the class may rule a sheet 
for a household page, using the headings suggested. 

Field records are very valuable to show the cost of pro- 
ducing any crop. To keep a cornfield record, a page of a 
book, having two money columns at the right side, is used. 
Books with such rulings are called "journals" and are for 
sale by stationers. Write in the record of the manuring, 
plowing, harrowing, seeding, planting, cultivating, and har- 
vesting. The amounts for such items are estimated at so 
much per day for man and team, and are written in the first, 
or left-hand, money column. Credit records are wTitten on 
the same page later in the year. The items may include green 
corn fodder, cured fodder, and ripe corn. The amounts for 
these wdll go into the right-hand money column. At the end 
of the year add the amounts in each column; the difference 
will show the profit (or loss) from the field. 

Exercise. — Making a Field Record. — A page of paper 
should be ruled by each student hke a "journal," with two 
money columns at the right and a date column at the left. 
Make the probable entries for one year for some familiar 
crop. Saitable amounts for the items may be estimated 
after talking with a good farmer. 

The Accounts to Keep on any farm will depend upon the 
special lines of farming that are followed. Some or all of 
the following accounts would be included: Cash, grocery, 
labor, horses, dairy, hogs, poultry, fruit, potatoes, and others. 
The Farmer a Salesman. — A farmer usually has produce 
of some kind to sell. He should advertise that fact in a 
number of useful ways : 

The produce itself should be put up in the very best form 



344 PRODUCTIVE FAR^ONG 

so as to catch the eye of the consumer. This idea is used 
in the egg case and the fruit case shown in Figs. 205 and 
120, A. 

The farm from which the produce comes should be attrac- 
tive and pleasing in appearance, as to its fields, buildings, 
fences, and lawns. This also adds real value to the place 
itself. 

The farmer, his team, and wagon must be neat and 
presentable when making deliveries of goods. These help 
to sell future products. Dairymen wear white uniforms. 
The work clothes should be kept at home. The commercial 
traveling salesman does not wear a factory suit. 

The farm should have an attractive name. This name 
should be printed neatly on letterheads, envelopes, shipping 
cards; and on cases, crates, and baskets in which produce 
is sold. 

The farm name should be made prominent on articles 
exhibited at agricultural fairs or in advertisements in local 
newspapers. 

Bulletin boards bearing the name of the farm, and 
announcing the kinds of produce for sale, should be placed 
at the nearest approach of the public road. 

An inventory should be a part of the records of every 
farm. It is made up of two lists: (1) the things the farmer 
owns, and (2) the debts or liabilities of the farmer. The list 
of property is usually made in the winter, about January 
1st. It should include the land itself; the different buildings; 
the several kinds of live stock, with their numbers, breeds, 
and ages; the machines; the hay, grain, apples, potatoes, and 
other stored products; household goods. Making the inven- 
tory list is always easier after the first year, as many of the 
articles will be merely transferred to the new lists and their 
values corrected. 

Exercise. — Value of Property. — The whole class working 
together should make up a list of the articles which probably 



THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 345 

would be found on some supposed place in the country. Let 
the complete list be made first, and the values may be added 
later. Students may learn the approximate values of dif- 
ferent articles by asking older people at home or elsewhere. 

Exercise. — Making an Inventory. — Let each pupil make 
an inventory of his father's property, and after the total 
value of the property has been estimated let him find the 
necessary net income in order to realize 5 per cent on the 
investment. Mciny different problems may be based on this 
exercise. 

Value of the Farm. — There arc many things to consider 
when determining the value of a farm. The surface and drain- 
age, the soil, the size as suited to the type of farming, the 
shapes and sizes of the fenced fields, the kind of improve- 
ments, the neighbors (whether they are in the same lines 
of farming or not), the distance to good markets, and the 
kind of roads. Before buying a farm a man would also 
think of the climate, source of drinking water, health- 
fulness, churches, schools, mail service, telephone, and 
taxes. He might well estimate the cost of securing modern 
conveniences in the home, including a water-pressure system 
and house drainage. 

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 62, Marketing 
Farm Produce; 242, An Example of Model Farming; 270, Modern Con- 
veniences for the Farm Home; 321, The Use of the Split-log Drag on 
Earth Roads; 347, The Repair of Farm Equipment; 370, Replanning a 
Farm for Profit; 437, A System of Tenant Farming and Its Results; 454, 
A Successful New York Farm. 



PART Y. 
APPENDIX— REFERENCE TABLES. 



TABLE I. 

REFERENCE BOOKS. 

The school library should be supplied with a set of all 
available United States Farmers' Bulletins and the printed 
index to the same; a set of the State Experiment Station 
bulletins; the Yearbooks of the United States Department of 
Agriculture; the circulars of the United States Bureau of 
Entomology; the volumes on animal diseases issued by the 
United States Bureau of Animal Industry. Get as many of 
the following reference books as the library funds will warrant; 

Soils. 

Soils — C. W. Burkett, Orange Judd Company, Xew York. 
Soils — S. W. Fletcher, Doubleday, Page «t Company, Xew York. 
Irrigation and Drainage — F. H. King, MacMillan Company, New- 
York. 

Farm Crops. 

The Cereals in America — Thos. F. Hunt, Orange Judd Company, 
New York. 

Forage and Fiber Crops — Thos. F. Hunt, Orange Judd Company, 
New York. 

Forage Crops — E. B. Voorhees, MacMillan Company, New York. 

Clovers — Thos. Shaw, Orange Judd Company, New York. 

Forage Crops — Thos. Shaiv, Orange Judd Company, New York, 

Soiling Crops— Thos. Shaw, Orange Judd Company, New York. 

Alfalfa — Joseph E. Wing, Breeders' Gazette, Chicago. 

Corn — Bowman and Crossley, Pub. by Authors, Ames, Iowa. 
346 



REFERENCE BOOKS 347 



Horticulture. 

The Principles of Fruit Growing — L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Com- 
pany, New York. 

The Pruning Book — L. H. Bailey, MacMiUan Company, New York. 

Vegetable Gardening — 5. B. Green, Webb Publishing Company, 
St. Paul, Minn. 

Garden Making — L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Company, New York. 

Bush Fruits — F. W. Card, MacMillan Company, New York. 

American Apple Orchard — F. A. Waugh, Orange Judcl Company, 
New York. 

Animal Husbandry. 

Judging Live Stock— J. A. Craig, Kenyon Printing Company, Des 
Moines, Iowa. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals — C. S. Plumb, Ginn & Co., 
Boston. 

Breeds of Live Stock — Thos. Shaw, Orange Judd Company, New 
York. 

Farm Animals — Wilcox and Smith, Doubleday, Page & Company, 
New York. 

Feeds and Feeding — W. A. Henry, Published by the Author, 
Madison, Wis. 

Progressive Poultry Culture — Brigham, Torch Press Pub. Co., 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 

Poultry Craft — J. H. Robinson, Farm-Poultrj^ Pub. Co., Boston. 

Profitable Stock Feeding — Howard R. Smith, Pub. by the Author, 
Lincoln, Neb. 

Dairying. 

Milk and Its Products — H. H. Wing, MacMillan Company, New 
York. 

The Business of Dairying — C. B. Lane, Orange Judd Company, 
New York. 

First Lessons in Dair}ing — Hubert E. Van Norman, Orange Judd 
Company, New* York. 

Bees and Insects. 

How to Keep Bees — Anna B. Comstock, Doubleday, Page & Com- 
pany, New- York. 

Economic Entomology — J. B. Smith, Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 
Insect Life— J. H. Comstock, D. Appleton & Company, New York. 



348 APPENDIX 

Cyclopedias. 

Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, 4 Vols. — L. H. Bailey, Mac 
Millan Company, New York. 

C)clopedia of American Agriculture, 4 Vols. — L. H. Bailey, Mac- 
Millan Company, New York. 

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture — Wilcox and Smith, Orange 
Jiuld Company, New York. 

General. 

Among Country Schools — O. J. Kern, Ginn & Co., New York. 

Agriculture, 3 Vols. — William Brooks, Home Correspondence 
School, Springfield, Mass. 

Farmers' Business Handbook — /. P. Roberts, MacMillan Company, 
New York. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life — J. G. Lipman, MacMillan 
Company, New York. 

Physics of Agriculture — F. H. King, Pub. by the Author, Madi- 
son, Wis. 

How to Choose a Farm — T. F. Hunt, MacMillan Co., New York. 

Farm Management — F. W. Card, Doubleday, Page & Company, 
New York. 

Our Trees : How to Know Them — Emer.'ion and Weed, J. B. Lippin- 
cott Co., Philadelphia. 

TABLE II. 
LIST OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

The list of agricultural experiment stations follows. Mail 
may be addressed to the director of the station or merely 
to the station, as for instance — Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Wooster, Ohio. 

Write to the State agricultural experiment station of 
your State for the bulletins, and for information regarding 
any farm subject: feeds, fertilizers, sprays, diseases, insects, 
implements, live stock, crops, etc. 

Alabama — Alaska — Sitka. 

College Station: Auburn. Arizona — Tucson. 

Canebrake Station : Uniontown. Arkansas — Fayetteville. 

Tuskcgee Station: Tuskegee. California — Berkeley. 



LIST OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS 



349 



Colorado — Fort Collins. 
Connecticut — 

State Station: New Haven. 

Storrs Station: Storrs. 
Del a ware — Newark . 
F 1 or i da — Gainesville. 
Georgia — Experiment. 
Hawaii — 

Federal Station: Honolulu. 

Sugar Planters' Station: Hono- 
lulu. 
Idaho — Moscow. 
Illinois — Urbana. 
I ndiana — Lafayette. 
Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — 

State Station Baton Rouge. 

Sugar Station New Orleans. 

North La. Station: Calhotm. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland — College Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East Lansing. 
Minnesota — University Farm, St. 

Paul. 
Mississippi — Agricultural College. 
Missouri — 

College Station: Columbia. 

Fruit Station: Mountain Grove. 



Montana — Bozeman. 

Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New Hampshire — Durham. 

New Jersey — New Brvnsivick. 

New Mexico — Agricultural College. 

New York — 

State Station: Geneva. 
Cornell Station: Ithaca. 

North Carolina — 

State Station: Raleigh. 
College Station: West Raleigh. 

North Dakota — Agricultural Col- 
lege. 

Ohio — Wooster. 

Oklahoma — Stillwater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State College. 

Porto Rico — Mayaguez. 

Rhode Island — Kingston. 

South Carolina — Clemson College. 

South Dakota — Brookings. 

Tennessee — Knoxville. 

Texas — College Station. 

Utah — Logan. 

Vermont — Burlington. 

Virginia — Blacksburg. 

Washington — Pullman. 

West Virginia — Morgantown. 

Wisconsin — Madison. 

Wyoming — Laramie. 



350 APPENDIX 

TABLE III. 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. 

For Biting Insects — Poisons. 

1. Arsenate of Lead — 

Arsenate of lead 2 to 3 pounds 

Water, or Bordeaux, or lime-sulfur 50 gallons 

Many experiments have shown that well-made arsenate 
of lead is much the safest of all available arsenical poisons. 
Arsenate of lead is to be found on the market both as a 
powder and as a putty-like paste, which latter must be 
worked free in water before it is added to the lime-sulfur 
mixture or to Bordeaux mixture. The paste form of the 
poison is largely used at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds to each 
50 gallons of the liquid and is added to it after it has been well 
worked free in water. As there are numerous brands of 
arsenate of lead upon the market, the grower should be 
careful to purchase from reliable firms. 

2. Wet Paris Green — 

Paris green I pound 

Lime i povmd 

Water 50 gallons 

If the above amount of Paris green is to be used with 50 
gallons of Bordeaux mixture the half pound of lime would 
be omitted. 

3. Dry Paris Green — 

Paris green 1 pound 

Powdered lime 20 pounds 

For Sucking Insects 

4. Kerosene Emulsion — 

Strong hard soap, shaved fine h pound 

Water 1 gallon 

Kerosene or crude petroleum 2 gallons 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 351 

Dissolve the soap in the water by boiling and immediately 
add it boiling hot, away from the fire, to the oil. The whole 
mixture is then agitated violently while hot. After five 
minutes' agitation the emulsion should be perfect, and the 
mixture will have increased from one-third to one-half in 
bulk and assume the consistency of cream. Well made, the 
emulsion will keep indefinitely and should be diluted only 
as wanted for use. 

How to Use the Emulsion. — During the growing period 
of summer, for most plant lice and other soft-bodied insects, 
dilute the emulsion with 15 parts of water; for the red spider 
and other plant-mites, the same, with the addition of 1 
ounce of flowers of sulfur to the gallon; for scale insects, the 
larger plant-bugs, and larvse, dilute with from 7 to 10 parts 
of water. Apply with spray pump. The greatest dilution 
noted gives 4 per cent of oil and the lesser dilutions approxi- 
mately 6 and 8 per cent. 

For Weevils in Corn, Beans, Etc. 

5. Bi=sulfide of Carbon. — One teaspoonful liquid bi- 
sulfide of carbon to each two cubic feet of tightly closed air 
space. The fumes settle downward in the space. Keep all 
flames away from the materials. 

6. Bordeaux Mixture. — Used as a fungicide to prevent 
diseases of plants. 

Copper sulfate (bluestone) 5 pounds 

Unslaked lime 5 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

This is called the 5-5-50 formula commonly used on 
apple trees in spring and summer. 

Dissolve the copper sulfate at the rate of 1 pound to one 
gallon of water. Slake the lime carefully until it is of a 
creamy consistency, add water to make one gallon per pound 
of lime. These two are called stock solutions and may be 
kept covered until needed. 



352 APPENDIX 

To make the Bordeaux mixture, dilute each as much as 
convenient before pouring them together. Pour the two 
diluted solutions at the same time into a third vessel. Strain 
it through a cloth before using it as a spray. Paris green or 
arsenate of lead may be mixed with this to prevent diseases 
and to poison insects at the same time, as on potatoes, toma- 
toes, and fruit trees. 

7. Lime=Sulfur (chiefly to kill San Jose scale and pre- 
vent disease). — 

Old Formula {without saW) — 

Powdered flowers of sulfur 15 pounds 

Burned lime 15 to 20 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Wet the sulfur and slake the lime. Add these to 10 gal- 
lons of boiling water. Boil for 40 to 60 minutes or until well 
dissolved. Then water is added to make 50 gallons. This is 
for winter use on orchards, and is used while warm. 

Concentrated Lime-Sulfur — 

Powdered sulfur 30 pounds 

Burned lime 15 pounds 

Water 15 gallons 

Add the wet sulfur and the lime, after starting it to slaking, 
to 15 gallons of boiling water, and boil until dissolved. This 
may be kept in a closed vessel until wanted. A layer of oil 
on the top of the liquid will keep away the air sufficiently. 
This is diluted with about 9 times its volume of water for 
winter use on apple trees. The rule for dilution requires 
that the specific gravity of the liquid be found. Divide the 
decimal part of this number by three hundredths ( . 03) and 
the quotient will tell the number of times to dilute the liquid. 
For example, if the specific gravity equals 1 . 27, divide . 27 
by .03, giving 9. Then dilute the liquid with 9 times its 
volume of water for winter use. As a summer spray on 
apples and potato vines it should be diluted with 3 times as 
much water as for winter use. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 353 

The boiling of lime-sulfur is done in an open kettle with 
fire beneath, or in a barrel or tank with steam escaping from 
a pipe in the bottom of the liquid. 

Commercial Lime-Sulfur. — A number of commercial prep- 
arations of hme-sulfur are sold. Each is supposed to be of 
about the strength given in the above formula for "Concen- 
trated Lime-Sulfur." The strength and the directions for 
dilution should be obtained with the liquid. As a general 
rule it is diluted with 9 times its volume of water for winter 
use. 

Self-Boiled Lime-Sulfur — 

Fresh burned lime 8 pounds 

Powdered sulfur 8 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water 
poured on to almost cover it. As soon as the lime begins to 
slake the sulfur should be added, after first running it through 
a sieve to break up the lumps, if any are present. The mix- 
ture should be constantly stirred and more water (3 or 4 
gallons) added as needed to form at first a thick paste and 
then gradually a thin paste. The lime will supply enough 
heat to boil the mixture several minutes. As soon as the 
lime is well slaked, water should be added to cool the mix- 
ture and prevent further cooking. It is then ready to be 
strained into the spray tank, diluted, and applied. It is 
used in the above strength, 8-8-50, as a summer spray on 
peaches, plums, and cherries. 



23 



354 APPENDIX 



TABLE IV. 
QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE, AND LEGAL WEIGHTS. 

Amount Lbs. per bu. 

Name of seed. per acre. usually. 

Alfalfa 30 lbs. 60 

Barley 8-10 pks. 48' 

Blue-grass, alone 20-25 lbs. ] 4 

Buckwheat 3-5 pks. 48* 

Clover, alone 10-15 lbs. 60' 

Corn, shelled, checkrow 6-8 qts. 60 

Corn, for ensilage 10 qts. 

Cotton, Upland 4-8 pks. 32* 

Cowpca 4-7 pks. 60 

Mangels 5-8 lbs. 

Millet 1-3 pks. 50=^ 

Oats 2-3bu. 32* 

Oats-and-Canada-peas 6 pks. each 

Potato 6-18 bu. 60^^ 

Rye 3- 8 pks. 56* 

Timothy 10-20 lbs. 45^ 

Timothy-and-clover mixture 10-12 lbs. each 

Vetch-and-grain mixture 4-5 pks. each 

Wheat 6- 9 pks. 60 

'Pennsylvania 47, varies in a few States from 45 to 50. 
2 Varies in different States from 42 to 56. 
' New Jersey 64. 
< Varies 28 to 33^. 
'A few exceptions. 



PEDIGREE OF PURE BRED CATTLE 



355 



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356 APPENDIX 



TABLE VI. 
RULES. 

Cubic Measure for the Farmer. 

231 cubic inches make one liquid gallon. 

2,150.4 cubic inches make one bushel. 

The standard bushel of the United States is cylindrical, 
8 in. deep and 18}4 in. diameter. 

1}4: cubic feet are allowed for one bushel of shelled corn 
or grain. 

23^ cubic feet are allowed for one bushel of corn on the 
cob. 

A crate 10x11x20 inches inside is used for a bushel of 
onions, potatoes, or other vegetables. 

A ton of hay on a wagon rack measures about 500 cubic 
feet. 

A ton of newly stored hay measures 7^ feet cube, or 
about 422 cu. ft. 

A ton of hay in stack, settled 30 days, is 7 feet cube, or 
343 cu. ft. 

After hay has settled several months it measures 270 
cubic feet to the ton. 

Measuring Land. 

One acre of land measures 160 square rods, or 4,840 
square yards, or 43,560 square feet. 

When the length of a field is known in rods, the width 
to take to make one acre is found when the given length is 
divided into 160. 



FERTILIZER FORMULAS 357 

TABLE VII. 

FERTILIZER FORMULAS. 

The ol)ject in the preparation of fertilizer formulas is 
to show the kinds and amounts of materials to use. Any one 
formula is not the best for all conditions; these vary as widely 
as the soils and different methods of management. 

Field Corn. 

Ground Bone 250 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 500 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 250 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 1 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 7 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 12 per 
cent; Potash, 12.5 per cent. 

Application, 200 to 300 pounds per acre on manured 
soils; 300 to 500 on medium soils without manure. For 
forage corn or ensilage, the nitrogen should be increased. 

Oats. 

Nitrate of Soda 150 lbs. 

Tankage 200 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate GOO lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 50 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 3.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 8 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10 per cent; 
Potash, 2 . 5 per cent. 

Application on good soils, 200 to 300 pounds per acre; 
300 to 500 pounds per acre on medium soils without manure. 

Wheat. 

Dried Blood 150 lbs. 

Tankage 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 700 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 50 lbs. 



358 APPENDIX 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 2.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 9 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10 per cent; 
Potash, 2 . 5 per cent. 

Application on good soils, 200 to 300 pounds per acre. 
On medium soils, without manure, 300 to 500 pounds per 
acre. 

Early Potatoes. 

Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. 

Sulfate of Ammonia 100 lbs. 

Tankage 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 500 lbs. 

Sulfate or Muriate of Potash 200 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 4 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 6 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 8 per cent; 
Potash (actual), 10 per cent. 

Application may range from 800 to 1200 pounds per acre. 

Sweet Potatoes. 

Tankage 300 lbs. 

Dried Blood 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 400 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 200 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 2.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 5.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 9 per 
cent; Potash, 10 per cent. 

Application per acre, from 500 to 800 pounds. 

Early Tomatoes and Market Garden Crops. 

Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. 

Ground Bone 100 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 550 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 100 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 4 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 7 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 9 per cent; 
Potash, 5 per cent. 

Application per acre, 800 pounds. 



FERTILIZER FORMULAS 359 

Timothy Hay, Top Dressing. 

Nitrate of Soda 500 lbs. 

Ground Bone 200 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 200 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 100 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 8 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 3 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 6.5 per cent; 
Potash, 5 per cent. 

Application, 200 to 300 pounds per acre. 

Fruits and Berries. 

Ground Bone 250 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 450 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 300 lbs. 

Composition. — Nitrogen, 1 per cent; Phosphoric Acid 
(available), 5.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10.5 per 
cent; Potash, 15 per cent. 

For medium or good soils, the application of this formula 
to the large fruits need not begin until the trees come in 
bearing, after which an annual application of from 300 to 
500 pounds per acre will furnish an abundance of the mineral 
elements. For berries, this formula may be applied at the 
rate of 400 to 600 pounds per acre previous to setting the 
plants, and annually thereafter. 

Fertilizer Equivalents. — The nitrogen in 1 pound nitrate 
of soda is about the same as in 2}^ pounds cottonseed meal; 
1 pound sulfate of ammonia = 1^ pounds nitrate of soda; 
1 pound dried blood = 1| pounds cottonseed meal; 1 pound 
nitrate of soda =13^ pounds dried blood. 



360 



APPENDIX 



TABLE VIII. 

AVERAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS AND THEIR 
FERTILITY.' 



Name of feed 



Alfalfa, green 

Alfalfa, hay 

Alsike (in bloom), green. ... 

Beets, sugar 

Brewers' grains (dried) 

Canada pea meal 

Cotton seed meal 

Corn ensilage , 

Corn fodder, green 

Cornmeal (all) 

Corn stalks with ears 

Corn stalks without ears 

Corn and cob meal 

Cow peas, green 

Crimson clover, haj^ 

Dried beet pulp 

Gluten meal 

Kentucky blue grass, hay... . 
Linseed meal (old process).... 

Malt sprouts 

Mangels 

Oats 

Oat forage, in bloom, green.. 

Oat straw 

Peas and oats, green 

Red clover, green 

Red clover, hay 

Red top, hay 

Ruta-bagas 

Rye 

Timothy, green 

Timothy, hay 

Wheat 

Wheat bran (winter) 

Wheat middlings 



Dry 

matter 
in 
100 
lbs. 



28.2 
93.6 
25.2 
13.5 
91.3 
89.5 
93.0 
26.4 
20.7 
85.0 
57.8 
59.5 
84.9 
16.4 
90.4 
91.6 
90.5 
86.0 
90.2 
90.5 
9.1 
89.6 
25.0 
90.8 
20.3 
29.2 
84.7 
91.1 
11.4 
91.3 
38.4 
86.8 
89.5 
88.5 
88.8 



Digestible parts 
in 100 lbs. 



Pro- 
tein 



3.6 
11.7 

2.6 

1.3 
20.0 
16.8 
37.6 

1.4 

1.0 

6.7 

2 

1 

4 

1 
10 

4.1 
29.7 

4.4 
30.2 
20.3 

1.0 
10.7 

1 



1 

1.3 
1.8 
2.9 
7.1 
4.8 
1.0 
9.5 
1.5 
2.8 
8.8 
12.1 
13.0 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 
( + fat 
X2.25) 



13.0 
43.1 
12.5 
10.0 
45.7 
53.3 
43.0 
15.7 
12.8 
72.2 
37.3 
32-7 
66.5 

9.1 
37.6 
65.1 
56.2 
41.8 
47.5 
49.1 

5.9 
58.7 
13.5 
41.3 
11.1 
16.4 
41.8 
49.1 

8.5 
72.1 
21.2 
45.3 
70.8 
43.4 
55.8 



Fertility in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 

(N) 



7.7 

26.1 

6.2 

2.9 

40.0 

32.3 

72.5 

4.3 

2.9 

14.7 

7.2 

6.1 

13.6 

3.8 

24.3 

12.9 

54.8 

12.5 

54.2 

42.1 

2.2 

18.2 

2.6 

5.8 

3.8 

7.0 

19.7 

12.6 

1.9 

18.1 

5.0 

9.4 

19.0 

25.1 

27.0 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 
(P2O6) 



1.3 

6.1 

1.1 

0.8 
16.1 

8.2 
30.4 

1.1 

1 

6 

5 

3 

5 

1 



4.0 
2.2 
3.3 
4.0 
16.6 
17.4 
0.9 
7.8 
1.3 
3.0 
1.5 
1.5 
5.5 
3.6 
1.2 
8.6 
2.6 
3.3 
5.5 
26.9 
26.3 



Potash 
(K2O) 



5.6 

17.9 
2.0 
3.7 
2.0 
9.9 

15.8 
3.7 
3.9 
4.7 
8.9 

10.9 
4.7 
4. 

13. 
3. 
0. 

15. 

13. 

19.9 
3.8 
4.8 
3.8 

17.7 
5.0 
4.8 

18.7 

10.2 
4.9 
5.8 



In quarts the dry feeds to make a pound would be: gluten meal 0.8, linseed 
meal 0.9, cottonseed meal, pea meal, cornmeal each 0.7, wheat 0..5, rye 0.0, oats 
1, wlicat middlings 1.3, bran 2, malt sprouts 1.7, brewers' grains 1.7. 

i Chiefly adapted from W. A. Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 



FEEDING STANDARDS 



361 



TABLE IX. 
FEEDING STANDARDS. 

POUNDS PER DAY PER 1000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 



Animal 



Horse, at light work 

Horse, at medium work 

Horse, at hard work 

Cattle, fattening, first period . . . 
Cattle, fattening, second period 
Cattle, fattening, third period. . 
Milk cows, 11 lbs. milk daily . . 
Milk cows, 22 lbs. milk daily . . 

Sheep, fine wool 

Sheep, fattening, first period . . . 
Sheep, fattening, second period. 
Swine, fattening, first period . . . 
Swine, fattening, second period . 
Swine, fattening, third period. . . 



Growing Cattle- 
Breeds. 



-Dairy 



Age, 
months. 



Average live weight, 
per head. 

2- 3 150 pounds 

3-6 300 pounds. . . . 

6-12 500 pounds 

12-18 700 pounds 

18-24 900 pounds . . . . 



1^ 


a 
"S 

1 


i 


Ha 

a 


20.0 


1.5 


10.4 


10.00 


24.0 


2.0 


12.3 


12.80 


26.0 


2.5 


15.1 


15.50 


30.0 


2.5 


16.1 


15.60 


30.0 


3.0 


16.0 


17.00 


26.0 


2.7 


16.5 


17.20 


25.0 


1.6 


10.7 


10.20 


29.0 


2.5 


14.1 


14.40 


23.0 


1.5 


12.7 


10.50 


30.0 


3.0 


16.1 


16.50 


28.0 


3.5 


15.8 


16.90 


36.0 


4.5 


26.5 


31.20 


32.0 


4.0 


25.1 


29.20 


25.0 


. 2.7 


19.9 


22.00 


23.0 


4.0 


17.0 


21.00 


24.0 


3.0 


15.0 


17.00 


27.0 


2.0 


13.6 


13.70 


26.0 


1.8 


13.4 


12.80 


26.0 


1.5 


12.6 


11.80 






7.0 

6.2- 
6.0 
6.5 



5.4 
6.2 
6.7 
5.7 
8.5 
5.4 
4.5 
5.9 
6.3 
7.0 



4.5 
5.1 

6.8 
7.5 

8.5 



362 



APPENDIX 



TABLE X. 
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FARM MANURES. 



Farm manures 



Pounds per thousand 



o c'S 



i) > 
o.£.SP 



t 3 



SiS 



Cow manure (fresh) . . 
Horse manure (fresh) 
Sheep manure (fresh) 
Hog manure (fresh) . . . 
Hen droppings (fresh) 
Mixed stable manure . . 



3.4 


1.6 


5.8 


2.8 


8.3 


2.3 


4.5 


1.9 


16.3 


15.4 


5.0 


2.6 



4.0 
5.3 

6.7 
6.0 
8.5 
6.3 



$29.00 
28.00 
26.00 
38.00 



$2.02 
2.21 
3.30 
3.29 
7.07 



' Con.«idering nitrogen at 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 
4} cents per pound. 



TABLE XL 
DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING FRUIT. 

(If planted in rows each way the distances usuall}' range 
in feet about as given here.) 



Fruit trees. 



Small fruits 



Apples 30-40 

Apricots 15-20 

Cherries 15-25 

Oranges 25-30 

Peaches 15-20 

Pears 20-30 

Pears, dwarf 10-15 

Plums 15-20 

Quinces 10-12 



Blackberries 4J-7 

Cranberries 1 -2 

Currants 4 -4J 

Gooseberries 4 -4* 

Grapes 6 -12 

Raspberries, black 3^-5 

Raspberries, red 3^-4 

Strawberries, hedge row . .1^-3 
Strawberries, matted row . 1 -4 



DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING VEGETABLES 363 



TABLE XII. 

USUAL DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING 
VEGETABLES. 



Vegetables 



Rows, 


Distance in 


feet apart 


rows, feet 


3-4 


1-2 


2-4 


1 


H-2 


drills 


H-2 


thin drills 


2-2i 


H'2 


3 


3 


1^-2 


drills 


2-2i 


1^-2 


3-3^ 


1-2 


3-4 


^-1 


4-6 


4-6 


3 


3 


1-2 


thin drills 


n 


^ 


H-2 


drills 


1-2 


drills 


1-3 


drills 


2h 


H 


2^-3 


i-U 


i-n 


drills 


4 


2-4 


li-2 


drills 


1-li 


drills 


6-8 


6-8 


3-4 


2 


li-2 


drills 


3-4 


3-4 



Plants 
per acre 



Asparagus 

Beans, bush and pole 

Beet, early 

Beet, stock, sugar. . . . 

Cabbage, early 

Cabbage, late 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Corn, sweet 

Celery 

Cucumber and melons 

Egg plant 

Lettuce, curly 

Lettuce, head 

Onion 

Parsley 

Peas 

Pepper 

Potato 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Squash and pumpkin 

Sweet potato 

Turnip 

Tomato 



8712-14520 
4840 

8712-14520 

10890-29040 

4840 

58080 

11616 
2722-5445 

5445-7260 
2722-4840 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, Preface, v 
Aberdeen Angus, 259, 260 
Accounts, keeping, 342 

to Iceep, 343 
Adults of insects, 203, 205, 206 
iEolian soil, 49 

Agricultural experiment stations, 349 
Agriculture, teaching of, 1 
Air for germination, 17 

forming soil, 43, 44 
in soil, 17 
Airing milk, 328 
Alfalfa as green feed, 109 
a soil improver, 109 
a chapter on, 109 
curing of, 112 
cutting. 111, 114 
for soiling, 97 
inoculation for, 110, 114 
in rotation, 92 
loading, 112 
raking, 113 

roots with nodules. 111 
rules for, 113 
seeding, 110, 114 
stacking, 113 
Alluvial soil, 45, 48 
American Merinos, 275 
saddle horse, 246, 248 
trotter, 246, 247 
Ammonia, sulfate of, 82 
Analysis of feeds, 308 
Animal production, section on, 237 

products, section on, 322 
Animals as soil formers, 43, 48 
composition of, 305 
improvement of, 237 
Antennae of insects, 202 
Annual defined, 20 

weeds, 29 
Appendages of insects, 202 
Appendix tables, 346 
Apple borer, flat head, 217 
round head, 219 
budding, 35 
Apple root grafts, 34 
rust, 228, 229, 231 
scab, 227, 228 
scab and rust, 215 

spraying for, 234, 235, 236 
scions, 33, 35 
stocks, 33 
varieties, 195 
worm, 214, 215 
Apples picked from ladders, 200 
propagation of, 33 
studying, 196 
Aquarium, 13, 14 
Arbor Day planting. 170 
Arithmetical problems, see Problems 



Arsenate of lead, 236, 350 
Ashes and sour soil, 76 

plant food in, 76 
Ayrshire cattle, 266, 267 

Babcock test, 333 

principles of, 334, 335 
outfit, 335 
Bacon type of swine, 279, 280, 281 
Bacteria in milk, 325 
Bailey, Dr. L. H., quoted, 186 
Balance in Nature, 13 
Balanced rations, 318 
Barley, 152 
Barn, a clean, 326, 327 

bad construction of, 326 
good construction of, 326 
manures, value of, 363 
Barns, ventilation of, 327, 328 
Barnyard manure, see Manure 
Bean weevil, 203 
Bee colony, 301 

hives, 301, 303 
-keeping, chapter on, 299 
studies, 304 
structure, 302 
Bees and insects carry pollen, 18, 19 
life of. 301 
winter care of, 304 
Beef breeds, 257 

cattle, fattening. 315 
cuts of, 322, 323 
Beet pulp, 314 
Belgian horse, 244 
Beneficial insects, 221 
Berkshire swine, 279, 280 
Berries, fertilizer for, 359 
Biennial defined, 20 

weeds, 29 
Birds as insect eaters, 222 
Bi-sulfide of carbon, 213, 351 
Biting insects, 202 

sprays for, 350 
Black Minorca pair, 285 
Black spot of peach, 225 
Blackberries, 198, 199 
Blake's, Prof. M. A., list of peaches, 194 
Blossoms, see Flower 
Bone, ground, 82 
Books, reference, 58, 346 
Bordeaux mixture, 215, 236, 350, 351 
Bottling milk and cream, 329 
Boys' and girls' clubs, 6 
Brahma hen, 286 
Bran, 313 
Breed, defined, 237 
Breeding, laws of, 237 
Breeds, beef, 257 

keeping pure, 237 
of bees, 300 



365 



366 



INDEX 



Breeds of horses, 241 

sheep, 271, 272, 274 
swine, 279, 280, 282 
Brewers' grains, 314 
Brooder houses, 298 
Brown rot of peach, 225, 226 
Brown Swiss cattle, 262, 267 
Bud selection, 23 
Budding apple trees, 35 

peaches and plums, Sb, 6i, ciS 
sticks, 35, 37 
Buds, fruit, 192, 194 

Bulletins, Farmers', how to secure, 3, 340 
how to use, 3 

referred to, see end of each 
chapter 
Bushel measure, 356 
Business of farming, 338 

success, elements of, 341 
Buttermilk, 331, 332, 334, 337 
Butts of corn, 134 
Buving feeds, 320 
By-products and mill feeds, 313, 315 

Cab horses, 244 

Calf feeding, 315 

California, school gardening in, 174 

Calves, dairy, 263 

feed for, 361 
Cambium layer of wood, 34 
Capillary moisture, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 

experiment, 62 
Carbohydrates, 307 

and" fat in feeds, 360 
Carbon bi-sulfide, 213, 351 
dioxide, 13, 14 
in plants, 13, 14 
Carniolan bees, 300 
Casein of milk, 323 
Catalo hybrid cattle, 260 
Catch crbps, 88, 89 
Caterpillar-hunting beetle, 221 
Caterpillars, 206, 207 
Cattle, chapter on, 257 
feed for, 361 
judging, 267, 268 ^ 
points of, shown, 26i 
products, chapter on, 322 
types of, 257 
Caucasian bees, 300 
Cedar apple, 229, 230 
Cellulose, 307 
Cereal crops, 95 
Certified milk, 330 
Changes in insects, 205 
Cheese-making, 333 
Chester white swine, 279, 280 
Cheviot sheep. 272, 273, 274 
Chicken houses, 288, 290 
location of, 289 
inside of, 289 
plan for. 290 
varieties, study of, 287 
to keep. 287 
Chickens, varieties of, 284-287 
Chinch bug, 213 
Chlorophvl, 11, 12 
Cholera, hog, 282 
Churning, steps in, 332 
Cicada captured. 223 
Clayey soil, 50, 51, 52, 56, 5< 61 
Cleaning seed, 22 



Cleveland Bay horses, 244 
Clothes moth, 212 
Clover, alsike, 104 

compared with standard, 318, 319 
crimson, 89, 104 
for soiling, 97 
in rotation, 90, 91 
methods of starting, 105 
nodules, 101, 102 
red, 104 

when to cut, 105 
white, 104 
Clydesdales,243 
Coach horses described, 244 
Coarse wooled sheep, 271 
Cob of corn, 137 
Cocoon, 205, 207 
Codling-moth, 214, 215 

spraying for, 234, 235, 236 
Cold frame, 176, 177, 178 
Colluvial soil. 49 
Colony of bees, 301 
Column system of accounts, 342, 343 
Commercial fertilizers, 81 
Community centre, 6 
Composition of animals, 305 
corn. 309 
feeds, 361 
fertilizers, 357, 359 
manures, 362 
milk, 323, 324, 325 
Composts of manure, 80, 81 
Concentrated feeds, 310, 312, 313, 314 
Condensed milk, 330 
Contrasts in farming, 339 
Cooling milk, 328 
Copper sulfate, 351 
Coppice growth of trees, 171 
Corn after oats and peas, 94 
as feed, 312 
butts, 134 
chapter on, 131 
cob. 133 

composition of, 309 
crop, 131 
culture, 140 
-drying rack. 144 
fertilizer for, 357 
finest in the world, 137 
for forage, 94 
for soihng, 98, 99 
germs, weak and healthy, 140 
grain, 133 

harvesting, 142, 143, 144 
in rotation, 90, 91 
kernels, 132, 135 
planting, 141 
pollination of, 19 
preparation of soil for, 140 
proportion of, to cob, 137 
root system, 143 
score card, 138 
silks. 19 

size of ears. 135, 136 
stalks as feed. 310 
storing. 142. 144, 146. 147 
testing, 138. 139 
tillage, 142 
tips. 134 

types of. 131, 132. 133 
vitality of, 134 
Correlation of subjects, 4 



INDEX 



367 



Cotswolds, 271, 272 
Cotton, chapter on, 115 

cultivation, 122 

diseases, 126 

fertilizers, 121 

fibers, 116, 118 

gin, 124, 125 

harvesting, 122 

improvement of, 119 

importance of, 115 

insects, 126-130 

market grades of, 124 

planting, 121 

problem, 123 

range of, 119 

relatives of, 117 

Sea Island, 117 

selecting, 119 

soil, 120 

types, 117 

upland, 117 

uses, 115 
Cottonseed meal, 314 
Cover crop for orchards, 193 
Cow peas, 90, 97, 102 
mixtures, 103 
Creaming, methods of, 331 
Cream, ripening, 331 

separators, 332 

testing, 337 
Crop, the fruit, 200 
Cropping, companion, 94, 178 

double, 94, 177 

succession, 93, 178 

systems of, 86, 87 
Crops, catch, 88, 89 

classification of, 95 

cover, in orchard, 90 

planting, 340 

rotation of, 86, 87, 176 

soiling, 97 
Cross-bred animals, 239 
Crossing, bad effects of, 239 
Cultivating, eflfects of, 02, 63 

peach trees, 71 
Cultivation of potatoes, 156, 157 
sweet potatoes, 158, 159 
Cultivators illustrated, 63 
Culture of corn, 140 

orchards, 193, 195 
Curculio of plums and peaches, 215, 216 

injuries of, 217 
Currant worms, 206 
Currants. 198, 199 
Cutting seed potatoes, 155 
Cuttings, lands of, 40, 41 
Cyprian bees, 300 

Dairy breeds, 263, 267 

calves, 263 

farm rotations, 90 

products, 322 

records, 333, 334 
Delaine Merinos, 275 
Dent corn, 131, 132 
Depth of planting seed, 175 
Devon cattle, 261 
Digestibility, influence on, 316 

of feeds, 360 
Diseases of man, 211 

plants, chapter on, 224 
Distances for planting fruits, 362 



Distances lor planting vegetables, 363 

trees, 166, 168 
Division of plants, 40 
Dorset sheep, 272, 273, 274 
Draft horses, 241, 244 
Drainage, chapter on, 65 

defects of, 62, 66, 67 

for alfalfa. 111, 114 

methods of, 65 

warms the soil, 67 

where needed, 67 
Drain tiles, 66, 68, 69 
Drains, reasons for, 65 

ventilate the soil, 67 
Drift soil, 48, 49 
Drill, grain, 150 

Drinking fountains, 291, 293, 297 
Dry mashes for chickens, 293 

matter shown, 305 
in feeds, 360 
Dual-purpose cattle, 260, 261, 262 

horses, 241 
Durham, see Shorthorn 
Duroc-Jersey swine, 279, 280 
Dust boxes for hens, 291 

mulch, 63, 64 

Ear-row method, 23 
Egg breeds, 284, 285 

packing, 296, 297 

problems, 298 

records. 285 

testing, 297 
Eggs, preserving, 298 

weight of, 296 

yolk of, 295 
English shire horses, 243 
Ensilage, 144, 145, 311 
Essentials in feeds, 306 
Evergreens, how to use, 186, 187 
Exercise, frequent in all chapters, see 
special topics 
referred to, 5 
Experiment stations, list of. 348 
Experiments for school gardens, 182, 183, 

184 
Eyes of insects, 202 

Fallow, bare, 88 
Fanning grain, 22 
Farm accounts, 342, 343 

crops, chapter on, 95 

forest planting, 163, 164 

management, section on, 338 

mapping the, 340 

-school, plan of, 176 

the value of, 345 
Farmer a salesman, 343 
Farmers' bulletins, see Bulletins 
Farming, best men needed in, 339 

causes for changes in, 338 

changes in, 338 

contrasts, 339 

results of changes in, 339 

special and general, 86 

system in, 340 
Fat in feeds, 308 
Fats in milk, 323 
Feed, equivalents in quarts, 360 

for pigs, 281, 282 

related to purpose, 316 

Bucculent, 294, 295 



368 



INDEX 



Feeds, troughs for poultry, 291, 292 
Feeds, analysis of, 308 

and feeding, chapter on, 305 

buying, 320 

change to tissue, 309 

digestibility table of, 360 

essentials in, 300 

fertility in, 360 

list of, 360 
Feeding beef cattle, 315 

for winter eggs, 293 

of insects, 202 

plants, 81 

principles of, 315 

standards, 317, 361 

systems for poultry, 292, 293 

young animals, .317 
Fermented milk, 331 
Fertility in feeds, table of, 360 
Fertilizer equivalents, 359 
Fertilizer formulas, 357, 359 

in feeds, 320 
Fertilizers, collection of, 84 

commercial, 81-85 

for pastures, 107 

for special crops, 357-359 

high grade, 83, 84 

low grade, 83, 84 

problems on, 85 

value of, 83 
Flies carry disease, 211 

life of, 210, 211 

remedies for, 211, 212 
Flight of insects, 202 
Fhnt corn, 98, 99, 131 
Floats, 82 
Flowers, imperfect, 18 

of strawberry, 18 

parts of, 19 

perfect, 17 

pollination of, 18, 19 

purpose of, 17 
Fiber crops, 95 
Field records, 343 
Fillers in orchards, 194 
Film moisture in soils, 58, 59 
Fine wooled sheep, 271, 274, 275 
Food value of milk, 323 
Forage crops, 95, 96 
Forage crops for midsummer, 99 
Forest care and management, 171 

influences, 161, 162 

planting, 160, 161, 163, 164 

trees, distances, 166, 16S 
mixed plantings, 167 
nurseries, 165 
propagation of, 164 
shade, 165 
Forestry, chapter on, 160 
Formalin for grain, 232 

potatoes, 231 
Fountains, drinking, 291, 293 
Free water in soils, 58, 59, 61 
French coach horses, 244, 245 

Merinos, 275 
Frost and rainfall, 179 

vegetables injured bv, 175 
Fruit buds, 192, 194 

crop, care of, 200 

crops, 96 

fertilizer for, 359 

planting, distances for, 362 



Fruit production, chapter on, 188 

trees, raising of, 33 
Fruits, small, 198 
Full-blood, see pure-bred 
Fungicides, 236, 350 

Gallon measure, 357 
Galloway cattle, 259 
Gang plow, 72 
Garden crops, 95 

fertilizer for, 358 

planning, 173 

plants, setting, 175 
Gardening, chapter on, 173 

landscape, 184 

ornamental, 184 

school, 180-184 

success in, 173 
German coach horses, 245 

black bees, 300 
General-purpose chickens, 284, 286 

horses, 241 
Ginseng, shelter for, 165 
Glaciers as soil formers, 47, 48 
Gluten meal, 313 
Gooseberries, 198, 199 
Grades defined, 238 

high, 239 
Grafting, cleft, 38, 39 

wax, making, 35 
Grain, drill, 150 

heads of, 153 

moth, 212, 213 

remedy for, 213 

samples of, 153 

sifting and fanning, 22 

small, 148 

smut, 231, 232, 233 
Grapes, 198, 199 
Grass seed, good and poor, 26 
Grasses for soiling, 97 
Gravel, 57, 61 
Green crops as manures, 73 

forage crops, 310 

manure, 53 

benefits of, 74 
for potatoes, 155 
planning for, 74 
plowing under, 70 
use of, 74 
Grit boxes, 291 
Ground beetle, 221 
Grub of beetle, 206 
Guard cells, 12 
Guernseys, 264, 265 

Hackney horses, 245 
Hampshire sheep, 272, 273 
Hampshire swine, 280 
Hardy vegetables, 175 
Harrow, spike-toothed, 64 
Harrowing, effect of, 62, 63 

pastures, 107 
Harvesting corn, 142, 143, 144 

grain, 150, 151. 152 

potatoes, 156-159 

sweet potatoes, 159 
Hay as feed, 310 

-caps for alfalfa, 112 

fertilizer for, 360 

in rotation, 91 

measure of, 356 



INDEX 



369 



Hay-stacking machine, 113 
Heading, see Pruning 
Hedge-row system, 196, 197 
Henry, W. A., credit given, 361 
Heredity, law of, 237 
Herefords, 258, 259, 267 
Hill-row method, 196, 197 
Hives, 301, 303 
Hog cholera, 282 
Holstein-Friesians, 264, 266 
Holstein, pedigree of, 355 
Home plot for school garden, 184 
Honey-bees, 221 

poisoning, 234 

-making, 301 
Hoppers for chickens, 291, 292 
Horses, age of, 251 

care of, 249 

chapter on, 240 

examining in barn, 249, 250 
Horses, feed for, 361 

inspecting, 249, 250 

judging, 252 

measurements of, 251 

origin of in America, 240 

points of, shown, 252 

pure breeds of, 241 

types of, 241 

unsoundness of, 251 
Horticultural crops, 95 
Horticulture defined, 173 
Hot-bed, 176, 177, 178, 181 

for sweet potatoes, 158 

plants from, 159 
Houdon chicks, 288 
House flv, 310, 311 

for chickens, 288 
pigs. 282 
Humus, 53. 56, 57, 61 
Husking and shredding machines, 144 
Hygroscopic moisture, 58, 59 

Improvement, kinds of, 70 

of animals, chapter on, 237 
soils, 69 
Impurities of seeds, 24 
Incubator, running an, 295, 296 
Inoculation of soils, 110 
Insecticides, 202, 203, 236, 350 
Insects, beneficial, 221 

breathing of, 204 

cages for, 207, 208 

changes of, 205 

chapter on, 202 

enemies, 207 

feeding of, 202 

growth of, 204, 205 

moulting of, 204 

mounting of, 208 

skeleton of, 205 

specimens of, 220 

structure of, 202 
Inventory, an, 344, S45 
Iodine test for starch, 13 
Irrigation of the garden, 174 
Italian bees, 300 

Jersey cattle, 263, 265 
Journal ruling for records, 343 
Judging corn, rules for, 132, 137 

cattle, 269, 270 

horses, 253, 255 



Judging sheep, 277 
swine, 283 

Kaffir for soiling, 98, 100 
Keeping farm accounts, 342, 343 
Kernels of corn, 132, 135 
Kerosene emulsion, 204, 350, 351 
Kinds of forest trees, 164, 165, 171, 172 
King system of ventilation, 327, 328 

Ladders used in picking fruit, 200 
Lady-beetle, 221, 222 
Lambs, winter or hot-house, 174 
Land drainage, chapter on, 65 

measuring, 356 
Landscape gardening, 184 
Lard type of swine, 279 
Larva of insects, 203, 205. 206 
Lattice shade for nurseries, 165 
Laws of breeding, 237 
Layering, tip, mound, vine, 39 
Leaf curl of peach, 226, 228 

skin of, 11 

structure, 10 
Lean type of swine, 279, 280 
Leaves, chlorophyl in, 11 

moisture from, 10, 11 

of plants, 10 

openings in, 11 

stomates in, 11, 12 
Legal milk, 330 

weights of grain, 355 
Leghorn hen, 284 
Legumes defined. 100. 101 

gather nitrogen, 101 

learning. 101 
Leicester sheep, 271 

Lens, use of, in examining seeds, 25, 26 
Life, duration of, 20 

of insects, 205 
Light horses, 241, 245, 246 

see Sunlight 
Lime and sour soil, 76 

and scab, 230 

benefits of, 75 

for pastures, 107 

in soil, 53, 56, 57 

slacking, 75 

-sulfur, 215, 220, 225, 228, 234, 236 
forms of, 352, 353 

water, 75 
Liming for alfalfa, 110, 114 
Lincoln sheep, 272 
Linseed meal, 314 
Little-peach diseases, 227, 230 
Loam, .50, 52, 54, 56, 57, 01 
Loose smut of oats, 232 
Loss from feeds, 309 

Maggot of fly, 216 

Malaria mosquitoes, 208, 209 

Manure and scab, 220 

care of, 78 

composition of, 363 

composts, 80 

for pastures, 107 

green, 53, 70, 73, 74 

heating of, 77 

leaching of, 77 

loss in, 77 

spreading, 78, 79, 80 

using, 79 



370 



INDEX 



Manure, value of, 76, 77 
Mapping the farm, 340 

school grounds, 341 
Market, fruit ready for, 200 

-garden crops, 95 

milk, form of, 329, 330 
Marl, 50 

Masses of trees and shrubs, 1S5, 186, 187 
Matted row system, 190, 197 
Measure, cubic, and land, 356 

of a pound of feed, 360 
Moat breeds of chickens, 284, 286 
Medium wooled sheep, 371, 372 
Men needed in farming, 339 
Merino sheep, 274, 275 
Metamorphosis, see Changes 
Middlings of wheat, 313 
Milk as food, 322 

bacteria in, 325 

bad flavor in, 325 

composition of, 323 

fats in, 323 

minerals in, 324 

pails, 327, 328 

pure, 326 

showing difference in, 324 

augar in, 324 

varies naturally, 324 
Mill feeds, 313 
Millets for soiling, 97 
Mineral matter, 308 
in milk, 324 
plants, 16 
Mixed planting, reasons for, 167 
Modified milk, 331 
Moisture increasing in soil, 62 

saving in soil, 62, 63 

used by plants, 60 
Morgan horse, 248 
Mosquitoes, 206, 207 

malaria, 208, 209 

yellow fever, 209, 210 
Moth, clothes, 212 

grain, 212, 213 
Mouldboards, iforms of, 72 
Moulting of insects, 204 
Mouth parts of insects, 202 
Movement of moisture, 60 
Mowing pastures, 107, 108 
Muck, 53 
Mulch, effect of, 63 

dust, 63 
Mules, classes of, 246 
Mutations defined, 238 

Native stock, 239 

Nitrate of soda, 82, 84, 357, 359 

Nitrogen, 357, 359 

in feeds, 360 

fertilizers, 81 

manures, 346 

Nodules on legumes, 101, 102 

studying. 111 
Nozzles for spraying, 235 
Nutrients, 310, 
Nutritive ratios, 318 
Nymph stage of insects, 207 

Oat smvit, treatment, 232, 233 
Oats, 150, 151, 152 

and grain for soiling, 99 
hav, 98 



Oats and grain for peas, 97, 98 
in rotation, 93 

as feed, 313 

fertilizers for, 357 

in rotation, 90, 91 

sprouted for poultrv, 395 
Oil meal, 314 

presence of, 308 
Olericulture defined, 173 
Ornamental chickens, 284, 287 

gardening, 184, 185 

planting, 170 
Orchard cover crops, 90, 193 

culture, 193, 195 

site and soils, 188, 189 

trees, pruning, 189, 190 
setting, 189 
when to plant, 189 
Osmosis defined, 14 

use of, 14 

with egg, 15 

with potato, 15 
Oxford sheep, 272, 273 
Oxygen in plants, 13, 14 

and air, 16, 17 

Pageants, 7 

Palatability of feed, 319, 320 
Parasites of insects, 222, 223 
Paris green, 236, 350 
Pasture, in rotation, 91 

plants, 106 

system, 99 
Pastures, bad conditions in, 107 

how to keep, 107, 108 

permanent, 106 
Peach culture, 193 

leaf curl, 226, 228 

scab, 225 

tree borer, 217 

varieties, 194, 195 

yellows, 225, 226, 229 
Peaches injured by curculio, 217 
Pea root nodules, 102 
Peaty soil, 50, .53, 57, 61 
Pedigree, sample, 355 
Pedigrees, 239 
Percherons, 242 
Perennial weeds, 30 
Perennials defined, 20 

place for, in garden, 174 
Perfect strawberries, 198 
Permanent pastures, 106 
Phosphate rock, 82 
Phosphoric acid, 357, 359 
in feeds, 360 

fertilizers, 82, 83 
manures, 362 
Phosphorus, study of, 83 
Picking and packing fruit, 200 
Pig management, 280, 281 
Pistillate strawberries, 198 
Plan for farm school, 176 

school grounds, ISO 
Planning crops, 340 
Plans for planting shrubs, 186, 187 
Plant diseases, 224, 225 

prevention of, 225 
studj-ing, 225 

-food in soils, 15, 56, 57 

improvement, chapter on, 22 
Planting corn, 141 



INDEX 



371 



Planting corn, experiment, 141 
distances for fruits, 363 
vegetables, 363 
mixed, for trees, 167 
ornamentals, directions for, 187 
potatoes, 155, 156, 157, 158 
principles of, 185 
time of, 174 
trees, 160, 161, 170, 171 
methods of, 163, 170 
need of, 161, 163 
on the farm, 163 
vegetables, 175 
Plants and moisture, 10, 11 
as soil formers, 43, 46 
breathing of, 12 
division of, 40 
feeding of, 81 
flowers of, 8, 17 
get food from air, 12 
for pasture, 106 
Plants, leaves of, 8, 10 

mineral matter in, 10, 11, 14 
needs of, 16 
parts of, 8 

per acre for vegetables, 364 
roots of, 8 
stems of, 8, 9 
water used by, 60 
Plowing, depth of, 62, 73 
fall, 72 

for potatoes, 155 

objects of, 70, 71 

Plows, form of, 71, 72 

gang, 72 
Plum curculio, 215, 216 
Plymouth Rock hen, 286, 287 
Poisons for insects, 350 
Poland China swine, 279, 280 
Polled Angus, 259 

cattle, origin of, 238 
Durhams, 258 
Pollen, how carried, 18 
Pollination, cross, 19 
of corn, 19 
self, 19 
Pony breeds, 241 
Pore spaces in soil, 60 
Potash, 357, 359 
in feeds, 360 

fertilizers, 83 
manures, 362 
muriate of, 83 
sulfate of, 83 
Potato beetle, 213, 214 
diggers, 156, 157 
harvesting, 156, 157, 158, 159 
scab, 230, 231 
Potatoes, chapter on, 154 
cultivation of, 156, 159 
fertilizer for, 359 
Irish, 154 

origin and types, 154 
planting, 155, 156 
treatment for scab, 233 
weights and yields, 157 
Poultry, care of, 294 
chapter on, 283 
kinds of, 283 
rations, 293 
Powdered milk, 330 
Principles of planting, 185 



Principles of spraying, 235, 236 
Problems, 16 

arithmetical, 4 
on eggs, 298 
feeds, 320 
fertilizers, 85 
Products of cattle, listed, 322 
school gardens, 184 
the dairy, 322 
Propagation of forest trees, 164, 165 

plants, 33 
Property, value of, 344 
Protein, 306 

in feeds, 361 
Pruning a budded tree, 36 
annual, 190 
care in, 192 
choice in, 191 

currants and gooseberries, 199 
grapes, 199 
high and low, 190 
illustrated, 190, 191, 192, 193 
instruments, 192, 194 
methods of, 191, 192 
practice in, 192 
principles of, 189 
raspberries and blackberries, 199 
small fruits, 198 
time for, 192 
young trees, 190 
Pupa stage, 205 
Pure-bred animals, 238 

milk, difficulty in obtaining, 325 
how to get, 326 
Purity of corn, 133, 134 

Quantity of seeds for crops, 354 
Questions, review, see end of each 
chapter 

Rainfall, absorbing, 61 

and frost, 179 
Rambouillet sheep, 275 
Raspberries, 198, 199 
Rations, balanced, 318 
Records for dairy cows, 333, 334 

of fields, 343 
Red polled cattle, 261, 262 
Reference books, 346 

tables, appendix, 346 
to books, 58 
References to bulletins, see Bulletins 
Remedies for codling-moth, 215 
curculio, 216 
flies, 211 
grain moth, 213 
mosquitoes, 209 
potato scab, 230, 231 
scale, 220 
Reversion defined, 23S 
Review questions, see end of each 

chapter 
Rings of wood, 169 
Ripened milk and cream. 331 
Roof garden, 183 
Rotation courses, 92 

of crops, benefit of, 88 
need of, 88 
reasons for, 86 
for dairy farms, 90 
Rotations, a few, 90 
quick, 91 



372 



INDEX 



Root crops, 95, 311 

for dairy cows, 98 

grafting, .34, 35 

hairs, 8, 9 

system of corn, 143 
Roots, effects of drainage on, 66 

for chickens, 291 

of plants, 8 
Roughage, 310 
Rows of kernels on corn, 137 
Rules for alfalfa growing, 129. 130 
corn judging, 132, 137 
farmers. 356 
Rust of apple, 228, 229 
Rye, 152, 153 

Saddle horse, 246, 248 
Salesman, the farmer a, 343 
Sampling milk to test, 335 
Sandv soil, 50, 52, 56, 57, 61 
San Jose scale, 219, 220 
Scab of apples, 227, 228 
Scab, potato, 2.30, 231 
Scale, San Jose, 219, 220 
Schedule for placing agriculture, 4 
School gardening, 180, 184 
equipment, 181 
experiments, 182, 183 
in California, 174 
place for, 181 
plots, 180, 184 
products of, 184 
suggestions for, 181, 182 
grounds described, 186 
mapping of, 341 
needs of, 186 
plans for, ISO 
Scions for apples, 33, 35 

peaches, and plums, 37 
Score card for cattle, 269, 270 
corn, 138 
horses, 253, 255 
Scrub, see Native Stock 
Seed analysis, 26 
cheap. 28 
collection, 28 
corn, harvesting, 142 
storing, 142, 144 
depth of planting, 175 
for crops, quantity, 345 
good, chapter on, 22 
immature, 28 
impurities in, 24, 25 
potatoes, cutting, 155 
treating, 155, 231 
samples of, 30 
selection, 22, 23 
storage, 29 
testing, 26, 27, 28 
what to buy, 28 
wheat, 150 
Seeding alfalfa, 110, 114 
oats, 151 
pastures, 107 
Seeds, forest tree, 164, 165, 166 
mounted, 31 
purpose of, 20 
structure of, 20 
study of, 20 
Selecting corn, rules for, 132, 137 
Separators, hand, 332 
Shallow tillage, 73 



Sheep, care of, 276 

chapter on, 271 

feed for, 362 

judging, 277 

to kill weeds, 108 

types of, 271 
Shelter belts, 162, 163, 164, 167 
Shire, English, 243 
Shorthorns, 2.57, 258 
Shorts, 313 
Shropshire, 272, 273 
Shrubs, masses of, 185 
Sifting, grain, 22 
Silage, see Ensilage 
Silk worm, 221 
Silo filling, 145, 312 
Silt, 50 

Site for orchards, 188 
Skim milk, 334, 337 
Slips, see Cuttings 
Small fruits, to grow, 189 

grains, chapter of, 148 
Soil, agencies in forming, 43 

builders, 43 

clayey, 50, 51, 52, 57, 61 

defined, 42 

farm, 56 

for barley, 152 
oats, 151 
potatoes, 155, 157 

improvement, chapter on, 69 

kinds of, chapter on, 50 

loamy, see Loam 

moisture, chapter on, 58 

names of, 57 

packing of, 00 

perfect, 56 

plant-food from, 15 

preparation for corn, 140 

rocky, 51 

sampling, 57, 58 

sandy, 50, 52, 57, 61 

texture of, 55 

transported, 48, 49 

warmed by drainage, 67 

wind-blown, 43, 49 
Soils, characteristics, chapter on, 50 

how formed, chapter on, 42 

inoculation of, 110 

water holding power, 00, 61 
in, 58, 61 
Soiling crops, 96, 97, 311 

entire, 96 

for the dairv, 96 

partial, 96, 99 

system, 96 
Soluble oil, 220 

Sorting and grading fruit, 200, 201 
Souring of milk, 329, 331 
Southdown sheep, 272, 273 
Soy beans, 90, 97, 102 
Specimens, preserving. 220, 221 
Sphinx.caterpillar, 223 
Sports defined, 238 
Spray mixtures, 351 

time to, 227, 233, 234, 235 
Spraying, 224, 228, 233, 236 

orchards, 233, 235 

principles of, 235 
Standardized milk, 330 
Standards of feeding, 317, 362 
Starch, 307 



INDEX 



373 



Starch in plants, 13 

State experiment stations, 349 

Stems of plants, 9 

relation of light, 10 
sap in, 10 
Steps in churning, 332 

cheese making, 333 
Stock feeding, 315 
Stocks for apples, 33 

peaches, 36, 37 
Stomates, 11, 12 
Storage of seeds, 29 

sweet potatoes, 159 
Stored grain, treatment of, 213 
Storing corn, 142, 144, 146, 147 

vegetables, 178 
Stover, corn, 144, 147 
Stratifying peach seeds, 37 
Straw as feed, 310 
Strawberries, 196, 197, 198 
flowers of, 198 
methods of planting, 196 
varieties of, 198 
Structure and phj-siology of plant.- 

chapter on, 8 
Subjects in school, 4, 5 
Subsoil and plow, 56 , 

Success, elements of, 341 

in gardening, 173 
Succulent feed, 294 
Sucking insects, 202, 203 

spravs for, 351 
Suffolk Punch, 244 
Sugar in milk, 324 
plants, 13 
Sugars, 307, 308 
Suggestions to teachers, 2 
Sunlight aids plants, 12 

need of, 12, 13 
Super for hives, 303 
Superphosphate, 83, 85 
Swarming of bees, 303 
Sweet corn, 98, 99, 100 

potatoes, 157, 158, 159 
culture of, 158, 159 
fertilizer for, 358 
harvesting, 159 
hot-bed, 158, 159 
plants, 157 
soil for, 157 
storage, 159 
Swine, chapter on, 278 
feed for, 361 

four stages in life of, 281 
mineral for, 282 
types of, 278 
Syrian bees, 300 
System in farming, 340 
Sj'stems of cropping, chapter on, 86 

Tables, consult Appendix, 346 

Tachinid fly, 211 

Tamworth swine, 280 

Tankage, 82 

Teachers, suggestions to, 2 

Temperature and souring. 328, 329 

in soil forming, 43, 44 
Temperatures, 16 
Tender vegetables, 175 
Tester for ear method, 139 
Testing milk and cream, 333, 337 

results, 140 



Testing seed corn, 138 
Thinning plants, lessons in, 183 
Thorax of insects, 202 
Thoroughbred, 238, 245, 247 
Tillage, 70, 73 

of corn, 142 
Timber crops, 96 
Time to prune, 192 
Tips of corn, 134 
Toads destroy insects, 223 
Tobacco, shelter for, 165 
Tomatoes, fertilizer for, 359 
Tongue graft, 34 
Treatment of seed potatoes, 231 
Tree planting, 160, 161, 170 
Arbor Dav, 170 

seeds, 164, 165, 166 
Trees influence water supplv, 162, 163 

kinds of, 164, 172 

raising of, 33 

shape of, 168 

top-working, 38 
Trotter, American, 246, 247 
Tuber crops, 95 
Type of corn, 133 
Types of cattle, 257 
horses, 241 
wheat, 148, 149 
Typhoid flies, 211 

Underdrainage, effects of, 62 

principles of, 67 
Unsoundness in horses, 251 

Value of manures, 362 
property, 344 
the farm, 345 
Variation among animals, 238 

in milk, causes of, 324 

laws of, 238 
Varieties of chickens, 284, 287 

fruit, 294, 295 
Vegetable gardening, 173, 179 

matter in soil, 53 
Vegetables, hardy, and tender, 175 

planting distances for, 364 
Ventilation bv drainage, 67 

of barns," 327, 328 
Vetch, 97 

Vines on buildings, 186 
\'itality of seed corn, 134 

Wasp with cicada, 223 

Water, capillary, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 

free in soils, 58, 59 

in flesh, 305 
plants, 14 
soils, 58. 61 
Water in soil formation, 44, 45, 46 

influenced by trees, 162, 163 
Wax for grafting, 35 
Waxing cotton for grafting, 35 
Weathering of rocks, 44 
Weed nuisance, 24 

seeds, identifying, 26 
sprouting, 110, 114 
Weeds classified. 29, 30 

collecting, 30 

defined, 29 

preventing, 73 
Weevils, treatment for, 351 
Weights of seeds, 354 



374 



INDEX 



Wet mashes for chickens, 294 
Wheat, 148, 149, 150 

fertilizer for, 357 

good and poor, 23 

heavy seed, 150 

in rotation, 90, 91 

planting, 149 

soil for, 149 

types of, 148, 149 
Whip grafting, 34 
Wind-breaks, 162, 163, 164 

for poultry, 289 
Wings of insects, 292 



Wood lot, 160, 163, 171, 

mounted samples, 109 

rings of, 169 
Wool, samples of, 277 

volk of, 275 
Wrigglers of mosquitoes, 206, 208, 209 
Wyandotte hen, 287 



Yellow fever mosquitoes, 209, 210 
Yellows of peach, 225, 226, 229 
Yorkshire, large, 280, 281 
Young animals, feeding, 317 



OCT 9 191? 



